Flea Infection in Mammals (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Bears and Lagomorphs, and a note on Elephants)

Disease Summary

• Wild rabbit fleas are usually not found on pet rabbits which are more likely to be affected by the common cat or dog flea: Ctenocephalides felis and Ctenocephalides canis respectively. (B600.16.w16, B601.13.w13,  B602.19.w19, B609.2.w2)  
• Flea bite hypersensitivity has not been reported in rabbits; however, "some rabbits appear to be significantly more pruritic than others, suggesting that a hypersensitivity reaction may exist in these animals". (B609.2.w2)
• Note: fleas are an important vector for the viral disease of Myxomatosis. (B602.19.w19, B606.4.w4)

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

• There are many species of Flea within the order Siphonaptera, which infect a wide variety of mammal and bird species. (B24, B46)

In Hedgehogs

• The Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog is host to Archaeopsylla erinacei - Hedgehog flea (B156.7.w7, B228.9.w9, J15.21.w1, J18.38.w1, B291.12.w12)
• Other flea species recorded on European hedgehogs (Erinaceus spp.) include Pulex irritans (human flea), Nosopsyllus fasciatus (rat flea), Ctenocephalides canis (dog flea), Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea) and others. (B228.9.w9)
• Ctenophthalamus agyrtes in Europe. (J18.38.w1)
• Echidnophaga gallinacae (stick-tight flea) has been recorded on the central African hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris - Four-toed hedgehog) in Kenya and Nigeria. (B228.9.w9)

In Elephants

• "A flea, Echindnophaga larina has occasionally been encountered on elephants." (B411)

In Bears

• Pulicidae fleas have been found in cubs or captive bears in contact with domestic animals, such as cat or dog. (B16.9.w9)

In Lagomorphs

Domestic rabbits:

• Ctenocephalides felis and Ctenocephalides canis - the common cat or dog flea, respectively. These fleas are much more likely to be found on the pet rabbit than wild rabbit fleas. (B600.16.w16, B601.13.w13, B606.4.w4, J29.5.w1, J213.4.w4)
• Spilopsyllus cuniculi - the European rabbit flea, may be found on outdoor pet rabbits that have contact with wild rabbits. (B606.4.w4, P600.1.w1)
  • This flea does not occur in the USA. (B600.16.w16)

• Cediopsylla simplex - Eastern rabbit flea (B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, B608.21.w21)
  • Commonly reported on domestic rabbits in the USA. (B614.11.w11)
• Odontopsyllus multispinosus -  Giant Eastern rabbit flea (B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, B608.21.w21)
  • Commonly reported on domestic rabbits in the USA. (B614.11.w11)

Wild rabbits (and also occasionally in domestic rabbits that are exposed to wild rabbits):

• Nosopsyllus fasciatus (P600.1.w1)
• Pulex irritans (P600.1.w1)

In Europe

• Spilopsyllus cuniculi - European Rabbit flea: found in (Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit). (B46, B600.16.w16, B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, P600.1.w1)
  • This flea does not occur in the USA. (B600.16.w16)
• Echidnophaga myrmecobii - Stick-tight flea (B601.13.w13)

• Cediopsylla simplex - Eastern rabbit flea (B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, B608.21.w21)
  • This is common on wild lagomorphs. (B614.11.w11)
• Odontopsyllus multispinosus -  Giant Eastern rabbit flea (B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, B608.21.w21)
  • This flea primarily affects rabbits of the genus Sylvilagus and has a lower incidence than Cediopsylla simplex. (B614.11.w11)
• Echidnophaga myrmecobii - Stick-tight flea (B601.13.w13)
• Echidnophaga gallinacea - Stick-tight flea (B602.19.w19, B614.11.w11, J213.4.w4, P600.1.w1)
• Hoplopsyllus species. (B602.19.w19, B614.11.w11, J213.4.w4)

• Echidnophaga spp. (B614.8.w8)
• Ctenocephalides felis (B614.8.w8)
• Spilopsyllus cuniculi
  • This flea was introduced into Australia from Europe in 1966 in an attempt to improve the transmission of Myxomatosis. (B614.8.w8)

In Sumatra, Indonesia

• Nesolagobius spp. (B605.10.w10)
  • The Sumatran striped rabbit (Nesolagus netscheri) is reported to carry this unique genus of flea. (B605.10.w10)

Hares: 

• There is not a specific "hare flea" for European hares, but rabbit, rat or hedgehog fleas may be found on many hares in the UK. (B284.10.w10)
• Cediopsylla inaequalis and Hoplopsyllus affinis have been reported in Lepus californicus melanotis - Black-tailed Jackrabbit.  (J1.11.w13)
• On Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare, Hoplopsyllus glacialis glacialis can be found. (J9.164.w1)

Infective "Taxa"

• Siphonaptera - Fleas (Order)

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Referees

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

In Hedgehogs:
B156.7.w7, B228.9.w9, B259.w7, B258.w9, B284.6.w6, B291.12.w12, B337.3.w3, J15.21.w1, J18.38.w1, P23.1999S.w8

In Elephants: 
B411

In Bears:B16.9.w9
D274
J30.56.w4, J345.3.w2, J417.24.w1

In Lagomorphs:
B142, B156.7.w7, B284.10.w10, B600.16.w16, B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19, B606.4.w4, B608.21.w21, B609.2.w2, B614.11.w11, J3.148.w14, J15.21.w1, J29.5.w1, J213.4.w4
P600.1.w1

Other References

Code and Title List

In Lagomorphs:
J1.11.w13, J1.19.w15, J9.164.w1, J11.55.w2, J23.10.w4, J24.52.w2, J40.4.w3, J40.7.w1, J40.24.w1, J62.60.w3, J62.62.w4, J157.70.w1, J381.37.w1, J469.34.w1, J469.55.w1, J469.106.w1, J469.125.w1, J469.136.w1, J469.153.w1, J469.281.w1, J469.288.w1, J469.360.w1, J469.424.w1, J469.442.w1, J469.495.w1, J497.20.w1, J524.60.w1

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

• Fleas are laterally flattened wingless jumping insects which may be found on a wide variety of mammals and birds. (B24, B46)
• Fleas are of veterinary importance due to:
  • the effects on their host
  • their capacity to act as vectors of a wide range of diseases. (e.g. see: Myxomatosis). (B24, B46)
  • their role as intermediate host for other parasites
• In many cases fleas are an incidental finding.

Clinical Characteristics

• Fleas may be visible on the host, as may their droppings.
• The host may scratch.
• Raised, slightly inflamed papules may be present where fleas have bitten the host.
• In dogs with flea-bite allergy there may be severe pruritus associated with discrete crusted papules, with self-inflicted trauma leading to areas of alopecia or moist dermatitis. 
• In cats with flea-bite allergy marked pruritus is associated with numerous small brown crusty papules palpable through the fur.

(B46, B)

• Fleas are easily visible on hedgehogs. (J15.21.w1, B284.6.w6)
• Fleas are considered normally not to harm hedgehogs. (B156.7.w7)
• Heavy infections, particularly in conjunction with other parasites, may cause anaemia due to blood loss and therefore weakness. (B259.w7, B284.6.w6, B291.12.w12, B337.3.w3)
• The main areas affected are the neck, chest, front legs, abdomen and between the spines. (B291.12.w12)

• Fleas visible moving through the hair, particularly near the eyes and axillae. (B16.9.w9) 

• Ctenocephalides canis (dog flea) or Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea): 
  • Infestation of  these fleas may occur when a rabbit lives in a house that also has dogs and cats.(B600.9.w9)
  • Flea bite hypersensitivity has not been reported in rabbits; however, "some rabbits appear to be significantly more pruritic than others, suggesting that a hypersensitivity reaction may exist in these animals". (B609.2.w2)
  • Flea populations on pet rabbits are often modest in number but they may be a source of irritation for the animal. (J3.148.w14)
    
• Clinical history:
  • Some animals are asymptomatic. 
  • Flea infestation in other animals or pets. 
  • Biting, scratching, chewing or excessive licking. 
  • Signs of flea dirt and fleas. 
    (B609.2.w2)
• Clinical examination: 
  • Fleas and flea dirt. (B609.2.w2)
  • Dull coat with easily epilated hair. (B602.19.w19)
  • Excessive moulting. (J213.4.w4)
  • Pruritus may or may not be present. (J213.4.w4)
    • Infestation may result in intense pruritus and allergic dermatitis with fur loss along the dorsum. (B600.9.w9)
  • Pale mucous membranes with tachycardia if there is anaemia. This may occur in heavy infestations especially in the young rabbit. (B609.2.w2)
    • Note: heavy infestations are very unlikely to be seen in pet rabbits. (V.w140)
  • Papules, excoriations, alopecia and scaling anywhere on the body. (B609.2.w2)
  • "patchy alopecia with pruritus, skin erythema, and crusting, especially on the pinnae and face". (B602.19.w19)
  • Secondary bacterial infections are occasionally seen. (B609.2.w2)
  • Distribution: mainly the dorsum and base of the tail. (B600.9.w9)

WILD RABBITS (Leporidae - Rabbits and Hares (Family)): 

• Spilopsyllus cuniculi 
  • Distribution:  ears - they may cluster along the edges of the rabbit's pinnae and face. 
    (B600.9.w9)

USA:

• Cediopsylla simplex - Eastern rabbit flea: especially around the neck and head. (B608.21.w21)
• Odontopsyllus multispinosus -  Giant Eastern rabbit flea: especially over the rump. (B608.21.w21)

Incubation

• Fleas hatch two days to two weeks after eggs are laid; the whole life cycle may take as short a time as three weeks or as long as two years. (B46)

• Hedgehog fleas have a short pupation period to ensure that nestling hoglets are parasitised. (B228.9.w9)

• "a small flea whose life cycle is influenced by the reproductive status of the host". (B600.16.w16)
• The egg maturation of this flea is dependent on the female rabbit's reproductive hormones, specifically a rabbit in late pregnancy or one that has newborn nestling. 
• It is the increase of blood corticosteroid concentrations that occur in late pregnancy that attract the fleas which then firmly attach to the doe to feed. 
• Within a few hours of the rabbit giving birth, the fleas will move from the doe to the neonates to feed, copulate, and then lay eggs in the nest. 
• The eggs hatch and the larvae will feed on the flea dirt that was deposited in the nest by the adult fleas that fed on the pregnant doe.

(B600.16.w16)

• Eggs hatch within ten days. (B614.11.w11)
• If the conditions are suitable, the life cycle of this flea can be completed within three weeks. (B614.11.w11)

Cediopsylla simplex has a similar synchronisation pattern of the life cycle of Spinopsyllus cuniculi. (B614.11.w11)

Mortality / Morbidity

• Flea infection may be incidental or may cause significant distress to the host. (B46)

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog may commonly have relatively heavy infestations of fleas. (J18.38.w1, B214.3.26.w11, B259.w7)
  • Heavy infestations of fleas may indicate the hedgehog is in poor condition. (J15.21.w1)
• N.B. Hedgehog fleas are absent from Erinaceus europaeus in New Zealand. (J10.22.w1)

• Flea infection is common in free-ranging bears. (J417.24.w1)

• Spilopsyllus cuniculi is considered to be the most important vector in transmitting Myxomatosis in the UK. (B614.11.w11)

Pathology

• Superficial dermatitis. (B609.2.w2)

Human Health Considerations

• Hedgehog fleas Archaeopsylla erinacei rarely, but occasionally, bite humans. (B228.9.w9, J3.128.w2, J184.48.w1, P23.1999S.w8)

Lagomorphs

• Fleas that are found on rabbits are able to transmit various infectious diseases between rabbits and occasionally to humans including:
  • Tularaemia (Tularemia in Lagomorphs with notes on Hedgehogs and Bears).
  • Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
  • Plague (see Yersiniosis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs, Lagomorphs, Bears and notes on Elephants)).

(B614.11.w11)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

• Erinaceus spp. (B228.9.w9)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei on most wild hedgehogs. (B258.w9)
• Pulex irritans were found on the long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus (Hemiechinus auritus - Long-eared hedgehog) in Iraq; it was noted that Archaeopsylla erinacei, Ctenocephalides felis, Echidnophaga gallinacea, Xenopsylla nubica and other flea species had been recorded previously on hedgehogs in Iran and the Arab world. (J177.18.w1)
• In New Zealand, infection with Nosopsyllus fasciatus (rat flea) and Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea) on Erinaceus europaeus. (J10.22.w1)
• Echidnophaga gallinacae (stick-tight flea) has been recorded on the central African hedgehog Atelerix albiventris (Atelerix albiventris - Four-toed hedgehog) in Kenya and Nigeria and on the Algerian hedgehog Atelerix algirus (Atelerix algirus - Algerian hedgehog) in Algeria. (B228.9.w9)
• Ctenocephalides felis strongylus on the central African hedgehog Atelerix albiventris near Nairobi (Kenya) and on the Ivory coast. (B228.9.w9)
• Ctenocephalides crataepus on several central African hedgehogs  Atelerix albiventris examined during a study in Nigeria. (J183.23.w1)
• Synosternus paliidus and Xenopsylla cheopis in hedgehogs in Nigeria. (B228.9.w9)
• Pulex irritans on a long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus in northern Iraq. (B228.9.w9)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei on Erinaceus concolor (Erinaceus concolor - East European hedgehog) and Hemiechinus auritus - Long-eared hedgehog in Israel. (B228.9.w9)
• In Ireland, almost all fleas (1024/1025) collected from hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus around Dublin were Archaeopsylla erinacei. (J3.119.w4)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei and Ctenophthalmus agyrtes are commonly found on hedgehogs. (B214.3.26.w11)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in Germany were found to be infested with Archaeopsylla erinacei commonly (70/74 hedgehogs), Ctenocephalides felis (12/76 hedgehogs) and also Ceratophyllus gallinae (1/76 hedgehogs). (J184.48.w1)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in Ireland were found to be infected with Archaeopsylla erinacei erinacei, with a mean burden of 55.9 fleas per hedgehog (from 19 hedgehogs). Two juveniles carried 65 and 114 fleas. Additionally one adult carried a single Ctenophthalmus nobilis. (J186.22.w1)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in the UK. (B259.w7)

In Elephants:

• "A flea, Echindnophaga larina has occasionally been encountered on elephants." (B411)

• Chaetopsylla setosa on wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in southern British Columbia (Canada) and Montana (USA). (J345.3.w2)
• Chaetopsylla setosa on wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear in British Columbia. (J345.3.w2)
• Chaetopsylla (Arctopsylla) tuberculaticeps ursi from wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear in southern Alberta, southern British Columbia and Alaska. (J345.3.w2)
• Chaetopsylla (Arctopsylla) tuberculaticeps ursi from wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in south-central Alaska and in Montana. (J345.3.w2)
• Chaetopsylla tuberculaticeps tuberculaticeps from wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear from Norway, Russia, the Italian Alps and Japan. (J345.3.w2)
• Thrassis spenceri (normally found on marmots) from a wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear from British Columbia. (J345.3.w2)
• Pulex irritans from four wild Ursus americanus - American black bears in northern California. (J345.3.w2)
• Orchopeas caedens (normally found on Tamiasciurus sp. red squirrels) found in a bear's den a few days after the bear left the den. (J345.3.w2)
• Unidentified fleas on a wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in Michigan. (J345.3.w2)
• Pulex sp. fleas were found on one of 30 bears during a study of Ursus americanus - American black bears from Montana and Wyoming. . [1976](J345.3.w3)
• Oropsylla arctomys (primarily a parasite on woodchuck, Marmota monax) were found (eight fleas) on one of five bears examined during a survey of Ursus americanus - American black bears in central Ontario, Canada, 1975-1977. (J30.56.w4)
• Chaetopsylla hiberculaticeps ursi in 2% of Ursus americanus - American black bears from Montana. (J417.24.w1)
• Fleas were present on free-ranging Ursus americanus - American black bears in Louisiana and on all of five individuals presented to the Louisiana State university Wildlife Hospital. (J417.24.w1)
• A study of 177 wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in spruce-fir forest noted that two bears in the main Big Creek study area had fleas Arctopsylla ursi and two bears collected from outside the study area had heavy flea infestations (and heavy lice and tick infestations). (D274)

In Lagomorphs:

• Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit including Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit (B46, B600.16.w16, B601.13.w13, B602.19.w19)
• Spilopsyllus cunicili are commonly found on Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit in the UK. (B142)
• In black-tailed jackrabbits Lepus californicus melanotus (Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit) in north-central Colorado, Cediopsylla inaequalis were found on 6/44 individuals (14%) and Hoplopsyllus affinis were found on 4/44 (9%). (J1.11.w13)
• Odontopsyllus multispinosus and Cediopsylla simplex were found on 22% and 15% respectively of 45 Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail from western Kentucky, USA, over a period of 15 months starting winter 1979. (J1.19.w15)
• Cediopsylla simplex on Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail) and Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit in North Carolina, USA. (J11.55.w2)
• Ctenocephalides felis damarensis was the only flea species found on 380 Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare from five locations in South Africa. (J62.60.w3)
• Ctenocephalides felis damarensis was the only flea species found on 178 Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare from the Kruger National Park (northern and eastern Transvaal) and the Hluhluwe region of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. (J62.62.w4)
• The common rabbit flea Cediopsylla simplex was commonly found on Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi (Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail) in Lee County, Illinois, 1951-1954. The many-spined rabbit flea Odontopsyllus multispinosus was also found. (J40.24.w1)
• In a study of Ochotona princeps - American pika in south-central Montana, USA, Ctenophyllus terribilis was found on the animals. (J381.37.w1)
• In a study of Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail in Virginia, the common rabbit flea Cediopsylla simplex, giant rabbit flea Odontopsyllus multispinosus and rodent flea Ctenophthalamus pseudagyrtes were found. (J524.60.w1)
• In a study of cottontails [probably Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail] in the eastern USA, the commonest flea found was Cediopsylla simplex, with Odontopsyllus multispinosus as the second commonest. Fleas found in much smaller numbers included Ctenophthalamus pseudagyrtes, Hoplopsyllus affinis, Orchopeas wickhami, Ctenicephalides canis, Pulex irritans, Oropsylla arctomys and Tamiophila grandis. Note: all the Hoplopsyllus affinis, came from a shipment of rabbits from Missouri (this species of flea is not found east of the Mississippi River). (J40.7.w1)
• During a study of Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare in east-central Alaska, numerous Hoplopsyllus glacialis lynx were noted on the hares. (J497.20.w1)
• In Surrey, UK, rabbit fleas Spilopsylus cuniculi were found on Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits all year, but with highest numbers in January to April and low numbers in August to October. (J157.70.w1)
• On Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare, in East Greenland, Hoplopsyllus glacialis glacialis on 39/40 hares; it was noted that this flea appears to be found on Lepus arcticus throughout its range. It was also noted that not only adults but also all three instars of larvae could be found on the hares during the breeding season (no cocoons or pupae were seen). The fur was observed to be "spotted and matted with dark particles, presumably blood passed through the gut of the adults; and that the gut of the larvae often showed bright red through the integument" - it was presumed they were feeding on the dry particles of blood. (J9.164.w1)
• In Australia, Spilopsylus cuniculi were found on introduced Lepus europaeus - Brown hare as well as Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits. It was noted that they are commonly found on hares in Europe. (J24.52.w2)
• From dead Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit, Cediopsylla tepolita and Hoplopsyllus pectinatus. [Not clear from the paper whether the dead animals from which these were taken were in the wild or in captivity] (J23.10.w4)
• In 210 Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontails from Iowa, Cediopsylla simplex was found in 18 rabbits, Hoplopsyllus affinis on nine rabbits and Ctenocephalides canis (dog flea) on four individuals. (J40.4.w3)
• On Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit, Holopsyllus powersii and Holopsyllus minutus. (J469.34.w1)
• Dog flea Ctenocephalus canis found on Sylvilagus transitionalis - New England cottontail. (J469.55.w1)
• Spilopsyllus sp. and Ctenocephaloides felis on Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail. (J469.106.w1)
• On Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit, Cediopsylla inaequalis, Odontopsylla dentatus and Orchopeas sexdentatus; fleas can be very numerous (J469.125.w1)
• Ceratophyllus multispinosus, Cediopsylla simplex, Odontopsyllus multispinatus, Holopsyllus affinis, Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes and Ctenocephalides canis on Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail. (J469.136.w1)
• Found on Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit [flea species not specified]. (J469.153.w1)
• Monopsyllus tolli, Ctenophyllus armatus and Amphalius runatus on Ochotona collaris - Collared pika. (J469.281.w1)
• On Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit, Cediopsylla inequalis, Cediopsylla tepolita, Hoplopsyllys pectinatus, Strepsylla mina, and Strepsylla sp. have been found. Fleas can be found on these rabbits year round, with peak numbers in the warm, rainy summer. (J469.360.w1)
• Cediopsylla inaequalis, Hoplopsyllus affinis, Hoplopsyllus lynx and Pulex irritans on Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit. (J469.288.w1)
• Many species including Hoplopsyllus glacialis, Euhopsyllus glacialis, Megabothris groenlandicus on Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare. (J469.457.w1)
• Hoplopsyllus affinis and Cediopsylla sp. on Lepus alleni - Antelope jackrabbit. (J469.424.w1)
• Pulex simulans has been found on Lepus callotis - White-sided jackrabbit. (J469.442.w1)
• Spilopsyllus cuniculi on Lepus timidus - Mountain hare. (J469.495.w1)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Elephants (Elephantidae - Elephants (Family))
• Bears (Ursidae - Bears (Family))
• Ursus americanus - American black bear
• Ursus arctos - Brown bear
• Leporidae - Rabbits and Hares (Family)
  • Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit
  • Lepus alleni - Antelope jackrabbit
  • Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare
  • Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare
  • Lepus californicus - Black-tailed Jackrabbit
  • Lepus callotis - White-sided jackrabbit
  • Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
  • Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare
  • Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit
  • Ochotona collaris - Collared pika
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit
  • Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit
  • Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail
  • Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit
  • Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail
  • Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit
  • Sylvilagus transitionalis - New England cottontail
• Ochotona princeps - American pika

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• Erinaceus spp. (B228.9.w9)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei on most wild hedgehogs. (B258.w9)
• Pulex irritans were found on the long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus  (Hemiechinus auritus - Long-eared hedgehog) in Iraq; it was noted that Archaeopsylla erinacei, Ctenocephalides felis, Echidnophaga gallinacea, Xenopsylla nubica and other flea species had been recorded previously on hedgehogs in Iran and the Arab world. (J177.18.w1)
• In New Zealand, infection with Nosopsyllus fasciatus (rat flea) and Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea) in Erinaceus europaeus. (J10.22.w1)
• Echidnophaga gallinacae (stick-tight flea) has been recorded on the central African hedgehog Atelerix albiventris (Atelerix albiventris - Four-toed hedgehog) in Kenya and Nigeria and on the Algerian hedgehog Atelerix algirus (Atelerix algirus - Algerian hedgehog) in Algeria. (B228.9.w9)
• Ctenocephalides felis strongylus on the central African hedgehog Atelerix albiventris near Nairobi (Kenya) and on the Ivory coast. (B228.9.w9)
• Ctenocephalides crataepus on several central African hedgehogs  Atelerix albiventris examined during a study in Nigeria. (J183.23.w1)
• Synosternus paliidus and Xenopsylla cheopis in hedgehogs in Nigeria. (B228.9.w9)
• Pulex irritans on a long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus in northern Iraq. (B228.9.w9)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei on Erinaceus concolor (Erinaceus concolor - East European hedgehog) and Hemiechinus auritus in Israel. (B228.9.w9)
• In Ireland, almost all fleas (1024/1025) collected from hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus around Dublin were Archaeopsylla erinacei. (J3.119.w4)
• Archaeopsylla erinacei and Ctenophthalmus agyrtes are commonly found on hedgehogs. (B214.3.26.w11)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in Germany were found to be infested with Archaeopsylla erinacei commonly (70/74 hedgehogs), Ctenocephalides felis (12/76 hedgehogs) and also Ceratophyllus gallinae (1/76 hedgehogs). (J184.48.w1)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in Ireland were found to be infected with Archaeopsylla erinacei erinacei, with a mean burden of 55.9 fleas per hedgehog (from 19 hedgehogs). Two juveniles carried 65 and 114 fleas. Additionally one adult carried a single Ctenophthalmus nobilis. (J186.22.w1)
• Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in the UK. (B259.w7)

In Elephants:

• "A flea, Echindnophaga larina has occasionally been encountered on elephants." (B411)

In Bears:

• In Bears:
  • Chaetopsylla setosa on wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in southern British Columbia (Canada) and Montana (USA). (J345.3.w2)
  • Chaetopsylla setosa on wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear in British Columbia. (J345.3.w2)
  • Chaetopsylla (Arctopsylla) tuberculaticeps ursi from wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear in southern Alberta, southern British Columbia and Alaska. (J345.3.w2)
  • Chaetopsylla (Arctopsylla) tuberculaticeps ursi from wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in south-central Alaska and in Montana. (J345.3.w2)
  • Chaetopsylla tuberculaticeps tuberculaticeps from wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear from Norway, Russia, the Italian Alps and Japan. (J345.3.w2)
  • Thrassis spenceri (normally found on marmots) from a wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear from British Columbia. (J345.3.w2)
  • Pulex irritans from four wild Ursus americanus - American black bears in northern California. (J345.3.w2)
  • Orchopeas caedens (normally found on Tamiasciurus sp. red squirrels) found in a bear's den a few days after the bear left the den. (J345.3.w2)
  • Unidentified fleas on a wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in Michigan. (J1.11.w11, J345.3.w2)
  • Pulex sp. fleas were found on one of 30 bears during a study of Ursus americanus - American black bears from Montana and Wyoming. . [1976](J345.3.w3)
  • Chaetopsylla hiberculaticeps ursi in 2% of Ursus americanus - American black bears from Montana. (J417.24.w1)
  • Fleas were present on free-ranging Ursus americanus - American black bears in Louisiana and on all of five individuals presented to the Louisiana State university Wildlife Hospital. (J417.24.w1)
  • A study of 177 wild Ursus americanus - American black bear in spruce-fir forest noted that two bears in the main Big Creek study area had fleas Arctopsylla ursi and two bears collected from outside the study area had heavy flea infestations (and heavy lice and tick infestations). (D274)

In Lagomorphs

• In black-tailed jackrabbits Lepus californicus melanotus (Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit) in north-central Colorado, Cediopsylla inaequalis were found on 6/44 individuals (14%) and Hoplopsyllus affinis were found on 4/44 (9%). (J1.11.w13)
• Cediopsylla simplex on Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail) and Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit in North Carolina, USA. (J11.55.w2)
• Ctenocephalides felis damarensis was the only flea species found on 380 Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare from five locations in South Africa. (J62.60.w3)
• Ctenocephalides felis damarensis was the only flea species found on 178 Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare from the Kruger National Park (northern and eatern Transvaal) and the Hluhluwe region of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. (J62.62.w4)
• Spilopsyllus cunicili are commonly found on Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit in the UK. (B142)
• The common rabbit flea Cediopsylla simplex was commonly found on Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi (Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail) in Lee County, Illinois, 1951-1954. The many-spined rabbit flea Odontopsyllus multispinosus was also found. (J40.24.w1)
• In a study of Ochotona princeps - American pika in south-central Montana, USA, Ctenophyllus terribilis was found on the animals. (J381.37.w1)
• In a study of Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail in Virginia, the common rabbit flea Cediopsylla simplex, giant rabbit flea Odontopsyllus multispinosus and rodent flea Ctenophthalamus pseudagyrtes were found. (J524.60.w1)
• In a study of cottontails [probably Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail] in the eastern USA, the commonest flea found was Cediopsylla simplex, with Odontopsyllus multispinosus as the second commonest. Fleas found in much smaller numbers included Ctenophthalamus pseudagyrtes, Hoplopsyllus affinis, Orchopeas wickhami, Ctenicephalides canis, Pulex irritans, Oropsylla arctomys and Tamiophila grandis. Note: all the Hoplopsyllus affinis, came from a shipment of rabbits from Missouri (this species of flea is not found east of the Mississippi River). (J40.7.w1)
• During a study of Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare in east-central Alaska, numerous Hoplopsyllus glacialis lynx were noted on the hares. (J497.20.w1)
• In Surrey, UK, rabbit fleas Spilopsylus cuniculi were found on Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits all year, but with highest numbers in January to April and low numbers in August to October. (J157.70.w1)
• On Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare, in East Greenland, Hoplopsyllus glacialis glacialis on 39/40 hares; it was noted that this flea appears to be found on Lepus arcticus throughout its range. It was also noted that not only adults but also all three instars of larvae could be found on the hares during the breeding season (no cocoons or pupae were seen). The fur was observed to be "spotted and matted with dark particles, presumably blood passed through the gut of the adults; and that the gut of the larvae often showed bright red through the integument" - it was presumed they were feeding on the dry particles of blood. (J9.164.w1)
• In Australia, Spilopsylus cuniculi were found on introduced Lepus europaeus - Brown hare as well as Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits. It was noted that they are commonly found on hares in Europe. (J24.52.w2)
• In 210 Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontails from Iowa, Cediopsylla simplex was found in 18 rabbits, Hoplopsyllus affinis on nine rabbits and Ctenocephalides canis (dog flea) on four individuals. (J40.4.w3)
• On Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit, Holopsyllus powersii and Holopsyllus minutus. (J469.34.w1)
• On Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit, Cediopsylla inaequalis, Odontopsylla dentatus and Orchopeas sexdentatus; fleas can be very numerous (J469.125.w1)
• Dog flea Ctenocephalus canis found on Sylvilagus transitionalis - New England cottontail. (J469.55.w1)
• Spilopsyllus sp. and Ctenocephaloides felis on Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail. (J469.106.w1)
• Ceratophyllus multispinosus, Cediopsylla simplex, Odontopsyllus multispinatus, Holopsyllus affinis, Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes and Ctenocephalides canis on Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail. (J469.136.w1)
• Found on Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit [flea species not specified]. (J469.153.w1)
• Monopsyllus tolli, Ctenophyllus armatus and Amphalius runatus on Ochotona collaris - Collared pika. (J469.281.w1)
• On Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit, Cediopsylla inequalis, Cediopsylla tepolita, Hoplopsyllys pectinatus, Strepsylla mina, and Strepsylla sp. have been found. Fleas can be found on these rabbits year round, with peak numbers in the warm, rainy summer. (J469.360.w1)
• Cediopsylla inaequalis, Hoplopsyllus affinis, Hoplopsyllus lynx and Pulex irritans on Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit. (J469.288.w1)
• Hoplopsyllus affinis and Cediopsylla sp. on Lepus alleni - Antelope jackrabbit. (J469.424.w1)
• Pulex simulans has been found on Lepus callotis - White-sided jackrabbit. (J469.442.w1)
• Many species including Hoplopsyllus glacialis, Euhopsyllus glacialis, Megabothris groenlandicus on Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare. (J469.457.w1)
• Spilopsyllus cuniculi on Lepus timidus - Mountain hare. (J469.495.w1)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Elephants (Elephantidae - Elephants (Family))
• Bears (Ursidae - Bears (Family))
• Ursus americanus - American black bear
• Ursus arctos - Brown bear
• Leporidae - Rabbits and Hares (Family)
  • Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit
  • Lepus alleni - Antelope jackrabbit
  • Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare
  • Lepus arcticus - Arctic hare
  • Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit
  • Lepus callotis - White-sided jackrabbit
  • Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
  • Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit
  • Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit
  • Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit
  • Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail
  • Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit
  • Sylvilagus transitionalis - New England cottontail
• Ochotona princeps - American pika

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• There are seasonal variations in flea burdens; newly-emerged fleas are abundant of hedgehogs in late summer/autumn. (B228.9.w9)
• In the southeastern USA, fleas may be found on bears year-round, while in northern areas they will be found late spring to early fall (autumn), when temperatures are higher than 15 °C (60 °F) and humidity is over 50%. (J417.24.w1)
• In a study on Lepus saxatilis - Scrub hare in South Africa, populations of Ctenocephalides felis damarensis were highest in late winter or spring. (J62.62.w4)
• In a study of cottontails [probably Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail] in the eastern USA, flea numbers and prevalence of infection was highest in April and May. (J40.7.w1)
• In Surrey, UK, rabbit fleas Spilopsylus cuniculi were found on Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits all year, but with highest numbers in January to April and low numbers in August to October. In April to June, there were more fleas on female than on male rabbits (J157.70.w1)
• On Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit, fleas can be found year round, with peak numbers in the warm, rainy summer. (J469.360.w1)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

In bears:  

• North America. (J417.24.w1)
• Fleas may be less common on bears in eastern North America than further west in North America. (J345.3.w2)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

In bears:  

• North America. (J417.24.w1)
• Fleas may be less common on bears in eastern North America than further west in North America. (J345.3.w2)

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Fleas (laterally flattened wingless insects) may be visible directly on the animal or in its immediate environment.
• Flea dropping may be visible on the animal or following combing. These appear dark brown or black but when placed on moist tissue a spreading red stain will appear.
• The host or its environment may be examined by using a vacuum cleaner with fine gauze inserted behind the nozzle so that any fleas are retained on the gauze.

(B46)

• Fleas are easily seen. (J15.21.w1, B259.w7, B337.3.w3)

• On physical examination, the presence of fleas moving through the hair. (B16.9.w9)

• Fleas and/or their dirt can sometimes be difficult to find if it is a mild infestation so diagnosis would then usually be made on the basis of clinical history, ruling out the other causes of dermatitis, and positive response to appropriate treatment. (B609.2.w2)

Laboratory tests

• Hypereosinophilia: inconsistently detected and it is not well documented. (B609.2.w2)
  • See Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs - Haematology
• Flea combings: 
  • Use a fine toothed comb on the coat of the rabbit to find fleas and/or flea dirt or eggs. (B600.16.w16, B602.19.w19)
  • Can be difficult to find. (B609.2.w2)
• See Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs - Skin testing

• Environmental Assessment
• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Cheyletiella species or the less commonly reported Leporacarus gibbus Fur Mite Infection in Lagomorphs
• Mite infection may be concurrent with a flea infestation.
• Distribution: Lesions around the tail base or intrascapular region.
• Clinical signs: Profuse amounts of  large, white scale.
• Diagnosis: Skin scrapes or acetate tape preparations- easy to see mites under low magnification.

Ear mites:

• Psoroptes cuniculi
• Usually very pruritic.
• Distribution: The inside of the pinnae, the surrounding ears, face, and the neck.
• Clinical signs: Chronic infection- skin thickening, and exudative crusts.
• Diagnosis: Mites visible with the unaided eye or may see them under low magnification.

Other parasites:

• Sarcoptic Mange and Notoedres Mange
• Both are rare in the rabbit
• Distribution: Head and neck.
• Clinical signs: Very pruritic lesions.

Contact Dermatitis:

• Distribution: Ventral lesions of acute onset.

Sebaceous adenitis:

• Clinical signs: Copious amounts of white flakes and scale. Alopecia.
• Diagnosis: Skin biopsy and histological examination.

Barbering and Excessive Grooming in Rabbits:

• Self inflicted or by cage mates.
• Clinical signs: Hair loss without any skin lesions, pruritus or scales.

Lack of grooming:

• Caused by obesity or an underlying musculoskeletal or dental disease.
• Clinical signs: Scale accumulation.

Injection Reactions:

• Particularly with irritating substances, e.g. enrofloxacin.
• Clinical signs: Alopecia and crusting.

(B609.2.w2)

Specific Medical Treatment

• A variety of insecticides may be used if treatment is required.
  • Care must be taken to avoid toxicity.
  • Pyrethrum-based dusting powder appears to be safe in most species (V.w5).
• Organophosphorus compounds (e.g. dichlorvos/fenitrothion combination, iodofenphos), pyrethrum, pyrethroids such as permethrin and organochlorines (bromocyclen in cats and dogs, gamma HCH in dogs) have been used. (B46)

• Treatment is often not required for wildlife casualties, unless there is a heavy infestation (J15.21.w1).
• For Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog:
  • Pyrethrum dusting powder, with or without piperonyl butoxide (B156.7.w7, B228.11.w11, B259.w7, B284.6.w6, B337.3.w3, J15.21.w1); e.g. Rid-mite (Johnson's Veterinary Products)
    • Treat any bedding with same powder. (B156.7.w7)
  • Synthetic pyrethroids. (J15.21.w1)
  • Bromocyclen powder (Alugan, Hoechst). (B156.7.w7) (This is no longer available in the UK)
  • Permethrin (B284.6.w6); N.B. permethrin may be toxic, even fatal. (B228.11.w11)
  • Fipronil may be used; it should be sprayed sparingly and it is essential to ensure that the hedgehog is kept in a well ventilated environment during and after treatment. (B284.6.w6) 
  • Fenthion (Tiguvon 10%, Bayer) one drop per 100 g bodyweight onto the back of the hedgehog: all fleas should be eliminated within 24 hours and the effect should last for four weeks. (B228.11.w11, B291.12.w12)
  • The use of insecticidal baths (followed by rinsing, then drying in a warm room) has been described, with a suggestion that very weak or hypothermic individuals should not be treated immediately. (B291.12.w12)
  • Avoid using aerosol sprays as the noise involved may cause stress to the hedgehog. (B228.11.w11)
• For hoglets a very mild flea or mite powder (Pyrethrum based) should be used, e.g. Johnson's Rid-mite (Johnson's Veterinary Products), designed for birds. (B337.2.w2)

• Commercial flea powder/spray, to treat the affected bear(s) and any in-contact animals. (B16.9.w9)
  • Keep bears from swimming for 24 hours after treatment. (B16.9.w9)
• The bedding and housing must be treated also. (B16.9.w9)
• Fipronil (Frontline®, Merial Animal Health Ltd.) is used on Ursus americanus - American black bear. (J417.24.w1)

• "Treatment of the rabbit is rarely required if cats and dogs and the environment are treated in the usual way". (B601.13.w13)
• Treat all the animals in household. (B609.2.w2)
  
• Imidacloprid (B606.4.w4):
  • Effective although it does not have a product licence for use in the rabbit. Dosage similar to cats. (B600.9.w9, B601.13.w13)
  • "one dose for cats, <9lbs., divided onto two to three spots topically q30d anecdotal dosage, appears to be safe and effective in rabbits". (B609.2.w2)
  • "The 10% spot-on topical formulation of imidacloprid (Advantage 40 for cats, 0.4 mL topical solution) has been used safely and effectively to treat flea infestations in rabbits". (B602.19.w19, J3.148.w14)
  • This has been stated to be "highly safe and efficacious with several years of use in the author's practice". (J213.4.w4)
    • Rabbits weighing less than 4 kg and older than 10 weeks of age- 0.4 ml applied to skin at the back of their neck. (B602.19.w19)
    • Adult rabbits greater than 4 kg in weight- 0.8ml applied to skin at the back of their neck. (B602.19.w19)
• Imidacloprid and moxidectin
  • A "topical dose of 40 mg imidacloprid and 4 mg moxidectin (10mg/kg and 1mg/kg body weight, respectively is recommended, with a repeat application in 30 days if required)". (P600.1.w1)
• Imidaclopid and Permethrin
  • In one study the topical application of 10 mg/kg of imidacloprid and 50 mg/kg of permethrin was a "practical and well-tolerated method of treatment for flea infestation in rabbits". (P600.1.w1)
    
• Lufenuron: 
  • An insect development inhibitor that will prevent flea eggs from developing. In households where this method of flea prevention is used on the dog and cat, this treatment may also be needed for the house rabbit. (B606.4.w4)
  • Long term use is reported to be safe. (B601.13.w13, J213.4.w4)
  • Anecdotal reported use in rabbits at 30 mg/kg orally every 30 days. (B609.2.w2)
    
• Selamectin:
  • Dosage similar to cats. (B600.9.w9)
  • 6-12 mg/kg applied topically every 30 days. (B609.2.w2)
    
• Sprays and powders:
  • Often contain pyrethroids and pyrethrins or carbaryl (Carbamates) with "an insect growth regulator or synergist". (B609.2.w2)
  • Products that are labelled for use in puppies or kittens are anecdotally thought to be safe and effective. (B609.2.w2)
  • Advantages: low toxicity and repellent activity (B609.2.w2)
  • Disadvantages: frequent applications and expense. (B609.2.w2)
  • Use carbaryl-based flea powder, which is safe for cats, one to two times per week to treat flea dermatitis in rabbits. (B602.19.w19) 
    
• Antibiotics:
  • May be necessary if there is a secondary pyoderma. (B609.2.w2)

CONTRAINDICATIONS

• Oral administration of antibiotics that act against Gram-positive bacteria:
  • i.e. penicillins, lincosamides, macrolides, cephalosporins. (B609.2.w2)
  • they may cause a fatal enteric dysbiosis and enterotoxaemia. (B609.2.w2)
• Fipronil: adverse reactions have been reported. This product should not be used. (B601.13.w13, B609.2.w2, J213.4.w4) See: Fipronil Toxicity in Rabbits
• Corticosteroids: 
  • Do not use these topically or systemically to treat rabbits with pruritic dermatitis due to fleas. (B609.2.w2)
  • May cause delayed wound healing, gastrointestinal haemorrhage, increased susceptibility to infection, hepatopathy, or hepatic abscess formation. (B609.2.w2)
  • Note: great care should be taken when administering corticosteroids to rabbits due to their immunosuppressive and hepatotoxic effects. (V.w128)
• Flea collars (B609.2.w2)
• Organophosphate - containing products: not to be used on rabbits. (B609.2.w2) See: Anticholinesterase Toxicity

PRECAUTIONS

• Off-label use of medication: most flea control products are not licensed for use in rabbits and therefore their efficacy and safety have not been evaluated in this species. Use with caution particularly in debilitated or young animals.
• Licking of topical spot-on products: must prevent the animal or its cage mate from doing this before the product has had chance to dry. 
• Pyrethrins: fish and  rodents are very sensitive to this product.
• Adverse reactions to pyrethrins and pyrethroid-type flea products: clinical signs include hypersalivation, muscle tremors, ataxia, depression, anorexia, and dyspnoea [if a very large excess dose is given]. (See: Permethrin and Pyrethrin Toxicity in Rabbits)
• Toxicity: If signs of toxicity are shown, the rabbit must be bathed thoroughly to remove remaining chemicals and have appropriate treatment.

(B609.2.w2)

• Treatment and Care - General
• Bathing Rabbits

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Treatment and Care - General

Preventative Measures

Several products are available which are designed for regular (monthly) administration to dogs and/or cats for control and prevention of flea infections. These may be available (depending on the product) as tablets, injections, sprays or "spot-on" solutions for application to the skin. (B504)

• Routine flea control used for the other pets in the household especially dogs and cats. 
  • year-round warm climates- may need year-round flea control.
  • seasonally warm climates- often flea control use starts in May or June.

(B609.2.w2)

• Treatment and Care - General

Environmental and Population Control Measures

• It is important to treat all the susceptible animals in contact with the known host even if they show no signs of infection. 
• Insecticidal sprays designed for environmental (house) use may be used.
• Sprays containing methoprene (insect growth regulator) may be used; this can prevent development of fleas to adults for up to four months after application.
• Thorough cleaning with a vacuum cleaner is important to remove fleas, eggs and flea droppings from the environment.

(B46, B504)

HEDGEHOGS

• Clean the bear's environment to eliminate eggs and larvae. (J417.24.w1)

• The environment must also be treated with insecticidal sprays and insect growth regulators. Rabbits must be removed from the environment until the products have dried. (B602.19.w19)
• Vet-Kem Acclaim Plus (Sanfoni Animal Health Ltd.)
  • This product is an environmental flea spray that contains 0.09 % w/w S-methoprene and 0.58% Permethrin which will apparently kill all stages of the life cycle of the flea. (B606.4.w4)
  • This spray can be used in the house or hutch. (B606.4.w4)
• Borate powder can be used on infected rugs. (B602.19.w19)
• Pyrethrin and Permethrin based environmental products may not be effective because of flea resistance. (B602.19.w19)

• Environmental and Population Management - General