Virus / Flaviviridae / West Nile Virus / Detailed Viral Descriptions:
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Ý ß  DEFINITIVE BIRD HOST SPECIES with literature reports for West Nile Virus:

Species/Taxa Recorded and Diagnostic Method used for Confirmation
Editorial Summary (Editorial Overview Text Replicated on Overall Virus page - West Nile virus)

Virus has been detected in a very wide range of bird species representing 17 of the 23 orders of birds. However until 1997 clinical disease from natural infection had only been observed in one pigeon. After this date bird morbidity and mortality was observed initially in WNV disease outbreaks in domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose) in Israel. Widespread mortality of birds occurred following the introduction of WN virus to the New York area, with the first fatalities observed in 1999, particularly in Corvus brachyrhynchos - American Crow and other corvids (Corvidae - Crows, Birds-of-Paradise etc. (Family)), and the list of species clinically affected (many native species, but also non-native captive birds) has increased as the virus has spread across North America.

(References available in detailed literature reports below)
Data Source Information Orders affected (detailed information available below):

The following list indicates the species which West Nile virus has been reported to infect, and indicates whether the infection was natural or experimental, and the level of diagnosis:

Struthioformes - Ostriches, Cassowaries & Kiwis (Order)

Dromaius novaehollandiae - Emu (Casuariidae - Cassowaries and Emus (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA, 2002. Natural infection, fatal or requiring euthanasia in one bird. Positive by RT-PCR on an oral swab in the live bird and by RT-PCR and IHC on brain and parenchymal tissues collected at necropsy. (J4.224.w1)

Struthio camelus - Ostrich (Struthionidae - Ostrich (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Galliformes - Pheasants, Quails & Turkeys (Order)

Alectoris chukar - Chukar (Alectoris - (Genus)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Alectoris graeca - Rock partridge (Alectoris - (Genus)):

  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a resident species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 5/44 individuals (11%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a resident species. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 4/38 individuals (11%). (J109.34.w1)

Bonasa umbellus - Ruffed grouse:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w5)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (Michigan) 2002. Natural infection confirmed in one bird. Positive for WN virus by immunohistochemistry and/or RT-PCR. (P5.41.w2)

Colinus virginianus - Bobwhite quail - (Odontophoridae - New World quails (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 3-5 days, mean 4.0 days, no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 1/3 birds (3%), detectable oral shedding of virus in 1/3 birds (33%). (J84.9.w2)

Coturnix japonica - Japanese quail (Coturnix - (Genus)):

  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 0-4 days (mean 1.3 days), no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus, detectable oral shedding of virus in 1/3 birds (33%). (J84.9.w2)

Francolinus swainsonii - Swainson's spurfowl (Swainson's francolin) (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/2 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

Gallus gallus domesticus - Domestic chicken (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • Canada (Manitoba), 2002. Natural infection in sentinel birds. (W27.11Sept02.wnv1, W27.21Sept02.wnv1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection not associated with clinical illness. Neutralizing antibodies detected in sera and seroconversion detected in two young birds. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Experimental infection in young chicks resulting in circulating virus in titres adequate to infect mosquitoes. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Experimental infection resulting in circulating virus, sometimes in titres adequate to infect mosquitoes. (J91.5.w1)
  • France, Camargue, 2004. Seroconversion in one sentinel chicken late July 2004, another in mid-August; two thirds of the sentinel chicken flock seroconverted by 6th September. (J486.8.w1)
  • Guadeloupe 2002. Natural infection, 11/20 chickens were seropositive by IgG ELISA in December 2002; samples from four chickens were also tested by seroneutralization and confirmed  WNV antibody positive. (J84.10.w4)
  • Guadeloupe, 2003-2004. Natural infection detected by surveillance in 11/656 chickens (1.7%) in July 2003 (three from the main island, eight from Marie Galante) and in 5/801 chickens (0.6%), all from the main island (Guadeloupe) in July 2004. PRNT90 titres were 1:20 to 1:1,280, mean 1:519. (J84.11.w3)
  • Israel, 1952. Natural infection, neutralizing antibodies detected in 2/13 birds. After an outbreak in Israel (Maayan Zvi), 1951. (J100.93.w1)
  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in sentinel chickens. Seroconversion to WN virus detected by haemagglutination inhibition and confirmed by immunofluorescence. Seroconversions occurred during October and November 1965. (J91.18.w1)
  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/19 birds (5%). (J109.34.w1)
  • Romania (southeastern Romania including Bucharest) in 1996. Natural infection during an outbreak of encephalitis in humans. Neutralising antibodies to WN virus detected in 30/73 domestic fowl at private residences. (J98.352.w1)
  • Romania, 1996. Natural infection. Neutralizing antibodies to WN virus detected by PRNT in 29/52 birds tested during a serological survey following an epidemic of WNV infection in humans. (J91.61.w2)
  • Romania (southeastern), 1997-1998. Natural infection in sentinel chickens. Seroconversions (indirect ELISA) detected in bleedings every two weeks from 23 June to 13 August 1997 (23%, 26%, 40% and 16% seroconversion) and again by 16 October (13%). (J100.181.w1)
  • South Africa, 1962 (approx.). Experimental infection to demonstrate the suitability of chickens as sentinel species. (J94.32.w1)
  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei, Lake Chrissie), summers 1962-1965. Natural infection of birds in sentinel flocks, occurring December to April. Detected by seroconversion as indicated by the development of haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to West Nile virus. (J94.32.w1)
  • South Africa, 1974 (approx.). Experimental infection of day-old chicks by intramuscular injection. Day-old chicks were viraemic 24 hours after inoculation at sufficient titre to infect mosquitoes (95 to 100% infection rate of mosquitoes). Mosquitoes thus infected were able to transmit WN virus to 89-100% of two- to four-day-old chicks at seven to 49 days after feeding. Transmission rate reduced to 48% when mosquitoes held at 18°C rather than 97% at 26°C and also reduced when mosquitoes were fed a lower virus dose. (J110.11.w1)
  • South Africa. Experimental infection. Viraemia demonstrated and transmission to mosquitoes by feeding. (J94.31.w1)
  • UK, 2002. Natural infection, neutralising antibodies detected by PRNT at the 90% neutralization level in 1/11 birds for WN-DAK and at the 50% neutralisation level in 71% of 14 birds for WN-NY, 82% of 11 birds for WN-DAK, 60% of 10 birds for WN-Is. Testing at the PRNT 50% neutralisation level was considered appropriate "since there is no evidence of disease in birds [in the UK], and antibodies may be of much lower titres compared with birds in the USA and may also have lower avidity." All of four PRNT-positive samples tested by indirect IFA test were also positive, three at 1:100 dilution and the fourth at 1:100 dilution of serum. Presence of E-specific and NS1-specific antibodies was confirmed by Western blot analysis. (J223.84.w2)
  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA (New York and New Jersey) 2000 Natural infection in sentinel chickens. "Seroconversion consistent with recent WN virus infection." (J84.7.w23)
  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (New York City) 1999-2000. Natural infection, 63% of birds tested were positive for neutralising antibodies in North-east Queens in 1999 and 6% were positive in Staten Island in 2000. (P39.2.w2)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York) 2000. Natural infection. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in 3/55 resident birds (5.5%) tested. (J279.1.w1)
  • USA, 1999/2000. Experimental infection; no clinical  disease resulting. Virus recovered from blood, fecal shedding of virus detected and development of specific antibodies in sera. (J5.44.w1)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA, (Duval County, Florida) 2001. Natural infection without clinical illness in a sentinel bird. Detected by seroconversion in a sample taken July 10 2001. (N7.50.w2)
  • USA (Florida, Iowa, Nebraska, New York State, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Texas) 2002. Natural infection in sentinel birds. A total of 366 individuals seroconverted from sentinels in 92 counties in eight states, as reported 1st January 2002 to 30 November 2002. (N7.51.w6)
  • USA (Florida) 2002. Natural infection, seroconversion in 1,021 sentinel chickens. (P48.1.w4)
  • USA, 2003.  Infection reported in 1,377 sentinel flocks from 15 states. (N7.52.w6)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of 16 birds produced a mean peak viraemia of 3.2 log PFU/ml; birds were considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for a mean of 0 days. (P39.2.w2)
  • Venezuela, 2006. Natural infection, flavivirus antibodies detected by ELISA and confirmed as WN virus (by 90% inhibition of virus in serum at 1:40 or greater dilution, and four-fold greater neutralising antibody titre than to closely relate flaviviruses) in one domestic chicken (and in four other birds). (J84.13.w1)
  • Experimental infection. No clinical signs following experimental subcutaneous or mosquito inoculation with strain WNV-NY99. Development of neutralising antibodies from as early as seven days post-inoculation and detectable viraemia in 20/21 birds. One apparent transmission from a needle-inoculated bird to its cage mate (as shown by a transient low-level viraemia). No development of antibodies or viraemia following oral inoculation.  (J84.7.w22)
  • Experimental infection. Infection in leghorn chicks less than three days old was lethal for 94% of chicks. At two days post infection viraemias of about 107 PFU per ml of blood were detected consistently and infection was transmitted to mosquitoes (various species) feeding on the chicks. (J110.38.w3)

Gallus varius - Green junglefowl (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Guttera pucherani - Crested Guineafowl (Guttera pucherani pucherani - Kenya crested guineafowl) (Numididae - Guineafowls (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness in some birds, and with clinical illness and recovery of other individuals. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Lophura bulweri - Bulwar's pheasant (Bulwar's wattled pheasant) (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Lophophorus impejanus - Himalayan monal:

  • USA (Wildlife Conservation  Society collections, New York City) 1999. Natural infection in two birds, death or euthanasia due to severe illness. West Nile virus/viral antigen detected. (J26.37.w1)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, fatal illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA (Michigan) 2002. Natural infection confirmed in one birds. Positive for WN virus by immunohistochemistry and/or RT-PCR. (P5.41.w2)

Meleagris gallopavo - Wild turkey:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (Florida) 2002. Natural infection [clinical status not stated] confirmed during surveillance efforts. (W27.21Feb02.wnv1)

Meleagris galloparvo domesticus - Domestic turkey (Meleagris - (Genus)):

  • Romania, 1996. Natural infection. Neutralising antibodies to WN virus detected by PRNT in 4/7 birds tested during a serological survey following an epidemic of WNV infection in humans. (J91.61.w2)
  • UK, 2002. Natural infection, neutralising antibodies detected by PRNT at the 90% neutralization level in 2/7 (28.6%) and at the 50% neutralisation level in 29% of 7 birds for WN-NY, 86% of 7 birds for WN-DAK, 0/7 birds for WN-Is. Testing at the PRNT 50% neutralisation level was considered appropriate "since there is no evidence of disease in birds [in the UK], and antibodies may be of much lower titres compared with birds in the USA and may also have lower avidity." (J223.84.w2)
  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed (J84.7.w15)
  • USA, 2000 (approx.) Experimental subcutaneous infection of three-week-old birds with virus isolated from a crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos - American Crow) in 1999. Infected birds developed low-level viraemia and antibodies. No clinical signs noted but one bird died at eight days post inoculation. (J5.44.w2)
  • USA (Wisconsin) 2002. Natural infection detected in 96% of female turkeys (130 of 135 birds tested) on one farm in association with an outbreak of avian pox and also of WNV infection in humans working on the farm. Virus neutralising antibodies detected. (N7.52.w5)

Pavo cristatus - Indian Peacock (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • Romania, 1996. Natural infection. Neutralising antibodies to WN virus detected by PRNT in 1/1 bird tested during a serological survey following an epidemic of WNV infection in humans. (J91.61.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York) 2000. Natural infection. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in 2/10 resident birds (20%) tested. (J279.1.w1)

Perdix perdix - Grey partridge:

  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus neutralizing antibodies detected. (J108.21.w1)

Phasianus colchicus - Common pheasant:

  • Czech Republic (Moravia) 1993-1998. Natural infection, no apparent clinical illness. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies detected in 18.5% of 162 individuals. (J131.48.w1)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral DNA detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. Shown to be susceptible to infection but an incompetent host.  (J91.65S3.w1)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of three birds produced a mean peak viraemia of 2.7 log PFU/ml; birds were considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for a mean of 0 days. (P39.2.w2)
  • Experimental infection. Viraemia sufficient to infect competent mosquitoes. (J115.13.w3)
  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Log10 transformed mean peak viraemia of 3.0, detectable viraemia for 3-4 days, no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus. (J84.9.w2)

Polyplectron inopinatum - Mountain peacock-pheasant (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Rollulus roulroul - Crested partridge (Green crested wood partridge) (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Tragopan blythii - Blyth's tragopan:

  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA (Wildlife Conservation  Society collections, New York City) 1999. Natural infection in one bird, death or euthanasia due to severe illness. West Nile virus/viral antigen detected. (J26.37.w1)
  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)

"Argus pheasant" (species not specified) (Phasianidae - Grouse, Turkeys, Pheasants, Partridges, etc. (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

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Anseriformes - Ducks, Geese & Swans (Order)

Aix sponsa - Wood duck:

USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Anas acuta - Northern pintail:

  • Experimental infection, viraemia sufficient to infect competent mosquitoes; long term viraemia (up to 101 days).  (J97.30.w1, J115.13.w3)

Anas crecca - Common teal:

  • Russia (Siberia), 2002. Natural infection, virus detected in 5% of individuals. (W27.16May.wnv1)

Anas cyanoptera - Cinnamon tea:

  • USA (Michigan) 2002. Natural infection confirmed in one bird. Positive for WN virus by immunohistochemistry and/or RT-PCR. (P5.41.w2)

Anas erythrorhyncha - Red-billed duck:

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 18/104 (36%) birds tested. Two birds had lost detectable antibodies when re-bled three weeks later. (J94.33.w1)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.). Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in one bird. Viraemia detected at one day after inoculation. Antibodies detected by neutralisation test; no antibodies detected by haemagglutination-inhibition test 30 days after inoculation. (J94.34.w1)

Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • USA (Washington DC), 2002. Natural infection, fatal, WNV infection laboratory confirmed. Captive bird at the National Zoo. (W27.19Jul02.wnv1)

Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard:

  • Czechoslovakia, 1971-73. Natural infection without apparent disease. Neutralizing antibodies detected in one bird (of 18 mallard and a total of 144 Anseriformes sampled). (J88.19.w2)
  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • France, 2000.  Antibodies [test not stated] were detected in 8% of captive mallards at a large pond in the south of the area where the outbreak of encephalitis in horses occurred in September to November 2000. (P38.2001.w3, J84.8.w8)
  • Tajikistan. Natural infection. Virus isolated. (J115.13.w3)
  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from two individual dead birds. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA (New York City) 1999-2000. Natural infection, 6% of birds tested were positive for neutralising antibodies in North-east Queens in 1999 and 8% were positive in Staten Island in 2000. (P39.2.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (Wildlife Conservation  Society collections, New York City) 1999. Natural infection in one bird, death or euthanasia due to severe illness. West Nile virus/viral antigen detected. (J26.37.w1)
  • USA. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. Shown to be a competent reservoir host.  (J91.65S3.w1)
  • USA. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. All individuals were viraemic following inoculation but there was no mortality. (P38.2001.w1)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of two birds produced a mean peak viraemia of 6.7 log PFU/ml; birds were considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for a mean of three days. (P39.2.w2)
  • Experimental infection of two birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 4 days, no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus. (J84.9.w2)

Anas platyrhynchus domesticus - Domestic Duck:

  • UK, 2002. Natural infection, neutralising antibodies detected by PRNT at the 50% neutralisation level in 83% of six birds for WN-NY, 2/2 birds for WN-DAK, 0/1 sample for WN-Is. Testing at the PRNT 50% neutralisation level was considered appropriate "since there is no evidence of disease in birds [in the UK], and antibodies may be of much lower titres compared with birds in the USA and may also have lower avidity." (J223.84.w2)

"Domestic duck"

  • Czechland (South Moravia) 1988. Natural infection in sentinel birds. HI and PRNT antibodies detected in 29% of 110 domestic ducklings maintained on a pond for the summer. (J115.13.w4)
  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection not associated with clinical illness. Neutralizing antibodies detected in sera. (J91.5.w1)
  • Romania, 1996. Natural infection. Neutralizing antibodies to WN virus detected by PRNT in 6/14 birds tested during a serological survey following an epidemic of WNV infection in humans. (J91.61.w2)
  • Thailand (1999-2000). Natural infection with seroconversion in sentinel ducks; higher titres to WN virus than to Japanese encephalitis virus in 11 ducks. (J91.67S2.w1)

Mallard/Domestic duck Anas platyrhynchos:

  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York) 2000. Natural infection. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in 1/13 resident birds (7.7%) tested. (J279.1.w1)

"Ducks"

  • Canada (Manitoba), 2002. Natural infection detected. (W27.11Sept02.wnv1)
  • France, Camargue, 2001- 2004. Detection in one sentinel duck on 16th August 2004. (J486.8.w1)

Anas querquedula - Garganey:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Southern Ukraine. Natural infection in a wild bird. Virus isolated. (J115.13.w3)

Anas specularis - Spectacled duck (Bronze-winged duck):

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (Wildlife Conservation  Society collections, New York City) 1999. Natural infection in two birds, death or euthanasia due to severe illness. West Nile virus/viral antigen detected. (J26.37.w1)

Anas undulata - Yellow-billed duck:

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 18/104 (17%) birds tested. (J94.33.w1)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.). Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in seven birds. Viraemia detected at one to four days after inoculation. Antibodies detected by neutralisation test (3/5 birds); antibodies detected by haemagglutination-inhibition test (4/4 birds), 30 days after inoculation. (J94.34.w1)

Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose:

  • Israel, 1997, 1998. Natural infection with fatalities. High seroprevalence of anti-WN virus antibodies in about 3000 geese. (J84.7.w10)
  • Israel, 1998. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one bird. (J64.19.w1)
  • Israel, 1999. Natural infection with fatalities, flocks of 8-10 week old geese. (J90.1999.w2)
  • Israel 1997-2000. Natural infection in commercial flocks with high morbidity and mortality. (J133.951.w26)
  • USA 2000/2001. Experimental infection by needle inoculation, resulting in clinical illness, fatal in some individuals. (J84.7.w29)

Anser cygnoides domesticus - Chinese goose:

  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, in a bird "recovering from an illness characterized by ataxia at the time of sampling." Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)

Domestic goose (Anser - (Genus) spp.):

  • Canada (Manitoba) 2002. Natural infection associated with clinical illness. (W43.Jan04.wnv3)
  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection not associated with clinical illness. Neutralizing antibodies detected in sera. (J91.5.w1)
  • Romania, 1996. Natural infection. Neutralizing antibodies to WN virus detected by PRNT in 1/1 bird tested during a serological survey following an epidemic of WNV infection in humans. (J91.61.w2)
  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, both with no history of clinical illness and with non-fatal clinical illness. Birds found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup:

  • USA (Michigan) 2002. Natural infection confirmed in one bird. Positive for WN virus by immunohistochemistry and/or RT-PCR. (P5.41.w2)

Aythya ferina - Common pochard:

  • Experimental infection, viraemia sufficient to infect competent mosquitoes. (J97.30.w1, J115.13.w3)

Aythya valisineria - Canvasback:

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Branta canadensis - Canada goose:

  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York City) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w21)
  • USA. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. Shown to be susceptible to infection but an incompetent host.  (J91.65S3.w1)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of three birds produced a mean peak viraemia of 4.7 log PFU/ml; birds were considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for a mean of 0 days. (P39.2.w2)
  • USA (Michigan) 2002. Natural infection confirmed in one bird. Positive for WN virus by immunohistochemistry and/or RT-PCR. (P5.41.w2)
  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 3-5 days (mean 4.0 days), no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 2/3 birds (67%). (J84.9.w2)

Branta leucopsis - Barnacle goose:

  • USA (Massachusetts), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 

Chloephaga picta - Upland goose (Greater Magellan goose Chloephaga picta leucoptera):

  • USA (Pennsylvania), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 

Cyanochen cyanopterus - Blue-winged goose:

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Cygnus olor - Mute swan:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Cygnus buccinator - Trumpeter swan:

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection with non-fatal clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan:

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Cygnus olor - Mute swan:

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

"Goose/Geese" (Anatidae - Ducks, Geese & Swans (Family)):

  • Canada (Manitoba), 2002.  Natural infection confirmed in one flock of geese. (W27.21Aug02.wnv1)
  • USA (Pennsylvania), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 

Netta erythrophthalma - Southern pochard:

  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.) Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in one bird. Viraemia detected at one and two days after inoculation. No antibody detection attempted. (J94.34.w1)

Netta peposaca - Rosy-billed pochard:

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Oxyura jamaicensis - Ruddy duck:

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

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Coraciiformes - Rollers, King-fishers & Bee-eaters (Order)

Alcedo atthis - Common kingfisher:

  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a winter visitor. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 3/5 birds (60%). (J109.34.w1)

Alcedo cristata - Malachite kingfisher (Alcedo - (Genus)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 3/5 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

Halcyon smyrnensis - White-throated kingfisher (Whitebreasted kingfisher) (Halcyonidae - Halcyon kingfishers (Family)):

  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). (J96.76.w2)

Merops orientalis - Little green bee eater (Small green bee-eater) (Meropidae - Bee-eaters (Family)):

  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) 1n 3/9 birds (33.3%). (J96.76.w2)

Megaceryle alcyon - Belted kingfisher:

  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

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Cuculiformes - Cuckoos, Hoazins & Road-runners (Order)

Clamator glandarius - Great spotted cuckoo (Greater spotted cuckoo) (Cuculidae - Old World cuckoos (Family)):

  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a summer visitor. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/4 birds (25%). (J109.34.w1)

Centropus burchelli - Burchell's coucal (Centropus superciliosus - Burchell's coucal)(Centropodidae - Coucals (Family)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/1 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

Coccyzus americanus - Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzidae - American cuckoos (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Coccyzus minor - Mangrove cuckoo (Coccyzidae - American cuckoos (Family)):

  • Dominican Republic, 2002. Natural infection in an adult female of a resident species. Positive for WNV antibodies by PRNT and ELISA discriminating from St Louis encephalitis virus. (J84.9.w16)

Saurothera longirostris - Hispaniolan lizard-cuckoo  (Coccyzidae - American cuckoos (Family)):

  • Dominican Republic, 2002. Natural infection in an adult female of a resident species. Positive for WNV antibodies by PRNT and ELISA discriminating from St Louis encephalitis virus. Another adult female was PRNT positive for flavivirus. (J84.9.w16) 

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Piciformes - Honey Guides, Barbets & Toucans (Order)

Colaptes auratus - Northern flicker (Picidae - Woodpeckers, Wrynecks (Family)):

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • Experimental infection of one bird via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for four days, no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus, no detectable oral shedding of virus. (J84.9.w2)

Dinopium bengalensis - Black-rumped flameback (Goldenbacked woodpecker) (Picidae - Woodpeckers, Wrynecks (Family)):

  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in 25% of 16 birds. (J96.76.w2)

Melenerpes erythrocephalus - Red-headed woodpecker (Picidae - Woodpeckers, Wrynecks (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral DNA detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Picoides pubescens - Downy woodpecker (Picidae - Woodpeckers, Wrynecks (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral DNA detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Picus viridis - Eurasian green woodpecker:

  • UK, 2002. Natural infection, neutralising antibodies detected by PRNT at the 50% neutralisation level in 0/1 birds for WN-NY, 1/1 birds for WN-DAK, 0/1 samples for WN-Is. Testing at the PRNT 50% neutralisation level was considered appropriate "since there is no evidence of disease in birds [in the UK], and antibodies may be of much lower titres compared with birds in the USA and may also have lower avidity." A hatch-year bird had PRNT 50% neutralising antibodies of <1/10 for WN-NY. (J223.84.w2)

Sphyrapicus varius - Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Picidae - Woodpeckers, Wrynecks (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral DNA detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

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Upupiformes - Hoopoes & Scimitar-bills (Order)

Upupa epops - Eurasian Hoopoe (Hoopoe) (Upupidae - Hoopoes (Family)):

  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in 1/6 (16.7%) birds. (J96.76.w2)

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Psittaciformes - Parrots (Order)

Coracopsis vasa - Vasa parrot (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • Madagascar (1975-88). Natural infection. Virus isolated. (J95.69.w1, J124.141.w1)
  • Madagascar 1978.  Natural infection in Coracopsis vasa drouhardi. Virus isolated. (J96.76.w1)

Melopsittacus undulatus - Budgerigar (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 0-4 days (mean 2.7 days), no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus, no detectable oral shedding of virus (33%). (J84.9.w2)

Myiopsitta monachus - Monk parakeet (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 0-4 days (mean 2.7 days), no clinical signs, no detectable cloacal shedding of virus, no detectable oral shedding of virus. (J84.9.w2)

Nymphicus hollandicus - Cockatiel (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Psittacula krameri (Rose-ringed parakeet) (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in 56.3% of 16 birds (J96.76.w2)

Psittacus erythacus - African grey parrot (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA, 2002. Natural infection, fatal or requiring euthanasia in one bird. Positive by RT-PCR on brain and parenchymal tissues collected at necropsy. (J4.224.w1)

Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha - Thick-billed parrot (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA, 2002. Natural infection, fatal or requiring euthanasia in one bird. Positive by RT-PCR on an oral swab in the live bird and by  IHC on brain and parenchymal tissues collected at necropsy. (J4.224.w1)

Tricheglossus sp. "Lorikeet" (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

"Cockatoo" (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • W8.Nov01.WNV2USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

"Parakeet" (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

"Macaw" (Psittacidae - Parrots and allies (Family)):

  • USA 1999-2001.  
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA [date not stated]. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)

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Apodiformes - Swifts (Order)

Chaetura pelagica (Apodidae - Typical Swifts (Family)):

USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

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Trochiliformes - Hermits & Hummingbirds (Order)

Archilochus colubris - Ruby-throated hummingbird:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

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Musophagiformes - Turacos & Plantain-eaters (Order)

Musophaga rossae - Ross's turaco (Lady Ross's plantain eater) (Musophagidae - Turacos and Plantain-eaters (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

"Turaco"  (Musophagidae - Turacos and Plantain-eaters (Family)):

  • USA (Georgia), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird  antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 

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Columbiformes - Pigeons & Doves (Order)

Columba leucocephala - White-crowned pigeon (Columba - (Genus)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Columba livia - Rock pigeon:

  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection in two birds, one of which was clinically ill. West Nile virus isolated. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection not associated with clinical illness. Neutralizing antibodies detected in sera. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Experimental infection resulting in detectable titres of circulating virus when a strain isolated from a pigeon was used. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt (Nile Delta), 1953. Natural infection. Neutralizing antibodies detected in 29% of 9 domestic birds and 25% of 10 semi-domestic birds tested. (J91.4.w1)
  • Egypt (Nile Delta), 1953. Natural infection with clinical illness (severe weakness) in one juvenile (estimated age three to four weeks). Virus isolated from the sick juvenile by inoculation of serum and by inoculation of brain and spleen in suckling mice. Virus also isolated from a serum sample from an apparently healthy pigeon (one of 33 birds sampled). (J39.84.w1)
  • Egypt (Nile Delta), 1953. Experimental infection. Inoculation of squabs (young pigeons) with Egypt 101 strain (two attempts) failed. Inoculation with Ar-248 strain produced a detectable level of circulating virus in 1/9 attempts, and then at low level for one day only. Inoculation with a strain isolated from a pigeon (An-1230) produced low-level circulating virus for several days. (J91.4.w1)
  • Egypt (Nile Delta), 1990. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by ELISA in 21% of birds tested. (J91.45.w1)
  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.) Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in 21 birds. Viraemia detected at one and two days after inoculation in 4/4 birds tested. Antibodies detected by neutralisation test in 17/21 birds; antibodies detected by haemagglutination-inhibition test in 18/21 birds, 30 days after inoculation. (J94.34.w1)
  • South Africa, 1968 (approx.) Experimental infection. Seventeen seronegative birds inoculated, of which all became viraemic following inoculation. Antibody (neutralizing and haemagglutination-inhibition) detectable in only some birds at one to eight months after inoculation but detected in 14/14 birds sampled at 12-16 months after infection. One seropositive bird inoculated, no viraemia detected. (J94.34.w2)
  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei and Bethulie) 1967-1971. Natural infection in sentinel birds exposed in wire cages. Antibodies detected by micro-haemagglutination inhibition test. Seroconversions during December to May (Olifantsvlei, moist Highveld) and January to June (Bethulie, arid Karoo) only. (J110.16.w1)
  • Southern Africa. (1965-1980). Natural infection. Virus isolated once from a sentinel pigeon. No further details. (P33.3.w1)
  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA (New York City) 1999-2000. Natural infection, 27% of birds tested were positive for neutralising antibodies in North-east Queens in 1999 and 54% were positive in Staten Island in 2000. (P39.2.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in free ranging birds. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w5)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York) 2000. Natural infection. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in 30/55 resident birds (54.5%) tested. (J279.1.w1)
  • USA (New York City) 2001. Natural infection in one of two adult birds in an area (Floral Park) in which a single dead virus-positive bird had been found early in the transmission season in 2000. Neutralisation antibodies detected by PRNT. (J91.67.w1)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. (J91.65S3.w1)
  • Experimental infection. Inoculation resulting in inapparent infection with virus isolated from brain up to 20 days post inoculation and irregularly in the blood up to 100 days post infection. FAT allowed detection of virus antigen in the Kupffer cells of the liver on the 184th day, from the spleen (113rd day) and from brain. (J121.2.w1)
  • Experimental infection, viraemia sufficient to infect competent mosquitoes. Persistence of virus in liver, spleen and CNS for at least 20 days. (J97.30.w1, J115.13.w3) 
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of six birds produced a mean peak viraemia of 4.3 log PFU/ml; birds were considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for a mean of 0 days. (P39.2.w2)
  • Experimental infection of six birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 3-4 days (mean 3.2 days), no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 4/6 birds (67%). (J84.9.w2)

Columba mayeri - Pink pigeon (Mauritius pink pigeon) (Columba - (Genus)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection with mortality. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Columbina passerina - Common ground-dove (Columbidae - Pigeons, Doves (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Gallicolumba luzonica - Luzon bleeding-heart (Bleeding heart pigeon) (Columbidae - Pigeons, Doves (Family)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Geotrygon montana - Ruddy quail-dove  (Columbidae - Pigeons, Doves (Family)):

  • Dominican Republic, 2002. Natural infection associated with local transmission at Parque National Los Haitises. PRNT and ELISA antibodies detected in a juvenile dove less than four months old, in November 2002. (J84.9.w16) 

Streptopelia capicola - Ring-necked dove (Turtle dove) (Cape turtle dove) (Streptopelia - (Genus)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/6 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.) Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in five birds. Viraemia detected at one to three days after inoculation. Antibodies detected by neutralisation test in 5/5 birds; antibodies detected by haemagglutination-inhibition test in 3/3 birds, 30 days after inoculation. (J94.34.w1)
  • South Africa, 1968 (approx.) Experimental infection. Three seronegative birds inoculated, of which all became viraemic following inoculation. Antibody (neutralizing and haemagglutination-inhibition) detectable in most birds at one to sixteen months after inoculation. (J94.34.w2)
  • South Africa, 1974. Natural infection recorded in surveillance following an epidemic in humans. Antibodies detected using haemagglutination-inhibition and neutralization tests in 100% of 2 birds tested. (J111.72.w1)

Streptopelia decaocto - Eurasian collared-dove:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in 1/4 birds (25%). (J96.76.w2)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus neutralizing antibodies detected in four birds. (J108.21.w1)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Streptopelia senegalensis - Laughing dove (little brown dove, palm dove) (Streptopelia - (Genus)):

  • Egypt (Nile Delta), 1953. Natural infection. Neutralizing antibodies detected in 48% of 33 birds tested. (J91.4.w1)
  • Egypt (Nile Delta) 1953. Experimental infection via mosquito with the prototype Egypt 101 WN virus strain. Viraemia developed but titers were lower than in Corvus corone - Carrion crow or Passer domesticus - House sparrow. Transmission experiments (by allowing susceptible mosquitoes to feed on an infected bird and 14-21 days later on mice) produced transmission only from an infected squab, not from adults (in which the circulating virus titre was lower). Infected individuals had not developed neutralization antibodies by two to four weeks after inoculation. (J91.4.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Natural infection not associated with clinical illness. Neutralizing antibodies detected in sera. (J91.5.w1)
  • Egypt 1950's. Experimental infection resulting in circulating virus, sometimes in titres adequate to infect mosquitoes. (J91.5.w1)
  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a resident species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 4/21 individuals (19%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Pakistan (Punjab Province), 1978-79. Natural infection. Antibodies detected by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in 1/5 birds (20%). (J96.76.w2)
  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 4/39 (10%) birds tested. Including one bird which had lost detectable antibodies when re-bled two years later.  (J94.33.w1)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.) Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in eight birds. Viraemia detected at one to three days after inoculation. Antibodies detected by neutralisation test in 7/8 birds; antibodies detected by haemagglutination-inhibition test in 8/8 birds tested, 30 days after inoculation.  (J94.34.w1)
  • South Africa, 1968 (approx.) Experimental infection. Nine seronegative birds inoculated, of which seven became viraemic following inoculation. Antibody (neutralizing and haemagglutination-inhibition) detectable in most birds at one to sixteen months after inoculation.  Seven seropositive birds inoculated, viraemia detected in only one (equivocal positive prior to inoculation); antibodies detectable at 7-8 and 12-16 months after inoculation. (J94.34.w2)
  • South Africa, 1974. Natural infection recorded in surveillance following an epidemic in humans. Antibodies detected using haemagglutination-inhibition and neutralization tests in 86% of  72 birds tested. (J111.72.w1)

Streptopelia turtur - European turtle-dove:

  • Czechoslovakia, 1971-73. Natural infection without apparent disease. Virus isolated from a blood sample by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation. (J88.19.w1)
  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a summer visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 105/505 individuals (21%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a summer visitor Streptopelia turtur arenicola. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 7/160 birds (4%). (J109.34.w1)
  • Israel (Rubin area), 1964-1965. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. West Nile virus isolated from three of more than 300 birds by mouse inoculation. During August to September, in the period when this migratory bird is present in Israel (summer visitor) and including two virus isolates from juvenile doves, indicating local infection.(J101.86.w1)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus isolated from brain of one bird by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation and identified by virus neutralization. Virus neutralizing antibodies detected in two birds. (J108.21.w1)

Zenaida asiatica - White-winged dove (Zenaida - (Genus)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in wild individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Virus or viral antigen detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Zenaida macroura - Mourning dove:

  • USA (New York City) September 1999. Natural infection, clinically normal birds. Virus neutralising antibodies detected in serum. (J84.7.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w5)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA (Staten Island, New York City) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w21)
  • USA (New York City) 2001. Natural infection in an adult birds in an area (New Rochelle) in which a single dead virus-positive bird had been found early in the transmission season in 2000. Neutralisation antibodies detected by PRNT. (J91.67.w1)
  • USA (Texas) 2003. Natural fatal infection in one bird collected 29th April; this was the first incident of WNV infection recorded in 2003 in Texas. (W27.22May03.wnv1)
  • Experimental infection of three birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 3-4 days (mean 3.7 days), no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 2/3 birds (67%), detectable oral shedding of virus in 2/3 birds (67%). (J84.9.w2)

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Gruiformes - Cranes, Bustards, Seriemas & Rails(Order)

Balearica pavonina - Black (West-African) crowned crane (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA (Tennessee), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Balearica sp. - Crowned crane (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA (Florida), 2001-2002. Natural infection. Two birds antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 

Grus americana - Whooping crane  (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus canadensis - Sandhill crane:

  • USA (Connecticut) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA, 2002. Natural infection with clinical signs in one bird; the bird survived. Positive by PRNT and by RT-PCR on an oral swab in the live bird. (J4.224.w1)

Grus carunculatus - Wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA (Georgia), 2001-2002. Natural infection. One bird antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8) 
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus japonensis - Red-crowned (Manchurian, Japanese) crane (Grus - (Genus)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus leucogeranus - Siberian crane (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus monacha - Hooded crane (Grus - (Genus)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus nigricollis - Black-necked crane (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus vipio - White-naped crane (Grus - (Genus)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection, no history of clinical illness. Found positive for WN virus specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Grus virgo - Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)): (Gruidae - Cranes (Family)):

  • USA (Wisconsin), 2001-2002. Natural infection. Two birds antibody-positive, during a zoo-based surveillance program.  (P39.3.w8)
  • USA/Canada, 1999-2003. Natural infection in captive individual(s). Reported positive in surveillance efforts. Antibodies detected. [Data to 15th April 2003](W8.Nov01.WNV2) 

Fulica americana -American coot (Fulica - Coots (Genus)):

  • USA. Experimental infection with a New York 1999 strain. Shown to be susceptible to infection but an incompetent host.  (J91.65S3.w1)
  • USA [date not stated]. Experimental infection of one birds produced a peak viraemia of 4.6 log PFU/ml; the bird was considered to be infectious to mosquitoes (viraemia of log 5 or higher per ml of serum) for 0 days. (P39.2.w2)
  • Experimental infection of one bird via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 4 days, no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 1/1 bird. (J84.9.w2)

Fulica atra - Common coot:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a winter visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 6/26 individuals (23%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a winter visitor. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 2/6 birds (33%). (J109.34.w1)
  • Russia (Volga Delta) Natural infection. (J84.6.w3)
  • Southern Ukraine. Natural infection in a wild bird. Virus isolated. (J115.13.w3)
  • Russia (Volga Delta, Astrakhan region) 2001. Natural infection, WN virus genome detected in organs by RT-PCR. In the lower delta 15.1% were WN virus-positive and in the middle data 12.3% were WN virus-positive. (J116.48.w1)

Fulica cristata - Red-knobbed coot (Fulica - Coots (Genus)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 16/72 (22%) birds tested, including two birds which seroconverted between testings (having been seronegative at an earlier date) and two birds which had lost detectable antibodies when re-bled four weeks later. (J94.33.w1)
  • South Africa, 1965 (approx.) Experimental infection by intramuscular inoculation in one bird. Viraemia detected at one and two days after inoculation. Not tested for antibody development. (J94.34.w1)

Gallinula chloropus - Common moorhen:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Russia (Volga Delta) Natural infection. (J84.6.w3)
  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/14 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

Rallus limicola - Virginia rail:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Porphyrio porphyrio - Purple swamphen (Purple gallinule) (Rallidae - Rails, Gallinules, Coots (Family)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 2/6 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

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Ciconiiformes - Raptors, Grebes & Penguins (Order)

SCOLOPACIDAE (Scolopacidae - Woodcock, Curlews, Phalaropes (Family))

Arenaria interpres - Ruddy turnstone:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Calidris alba - Sanderling:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Calidris ferruginea - Curlew sandpiper:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Gallinago gallinago - Common snipe:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Philomachus pugnax - Ruff:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Tringa glareola - Wood sandpiper:

  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus neutralizing antibodies detected in one bird. (J108.21.w1)

Tringa ochropus - Green sandpiper:

  • Czechoslovakia, 1971-73. Natural infection without apparent disease. Virus isolated from a blood sample by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation. (J88.19.w1)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus isolated from a blood sample by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation and identified by virus neutralization. (J108.21.w1)

BURHINIDAE (Burhinidae - Thick-knees (Family))

Burhinus oedicnemus - Eurasian thick-knee (Stone curlew):

  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a resident species. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/1 bird. (J109.34.w1)

CHARADRIDAE (Charadriidae - Oystercatchers, Avocets, Lapwings (Family))

Charadrius alexandrius - Kentish plover (Charadrius - (Genus)):

  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a winter visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 6/71 individuals (8%). (J91.18.w1)

Charadrius vociferus - Killdeer:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • Experimental infection of two birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 4-5 days (mean 4.5 days), no clinical signs, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 1/2 birds (50%), detectable oral shedding of virus in 1/2 birds (50%). (J84.9.w2)

Himantopus himantopus - Black-winged Stilt (Charadriidae - Oystercatchers, Avocets, Lapwings (Family)):

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Recurvirostra avosetta - Pied avocet:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Vanellus armatus - Blacksmith lapwing (Blacksmith's plover) (Vanellus - (Genus)):

  • South Africa (Olifantsvlei), 1962-65. Natural infection. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/3 birds tested. (J94.33.w1)

Vanellus spinosus - Spur-winged lapwing (Hoplopterus spinosus  - Spur-winger plover ) (Vanellus - (Genus)):

  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a resident species. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 1/9 birds (11%). (J109.34.w1)

Vanellus vanellus - Northern lapwing:

  • Czechoslovakia, 1971-73. Natural infection without apparent disease. Virus isolated from a blood sample by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation. (J88.19.w1)
  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)
  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a winter visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 1/21 individuals (5%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Israel 1959-60.  Natural infection in a winter visitor. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to WN virus detected in 2/23 birds (9%). (J109.34.w1)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus isolated from brain by suckling mouse intracerebral inoculation and identified by virus neutralization. (J108.21.w1)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus neutralizing antibodies detected in three birds. (J108.21.w1)
  • Southern Ukraine. Natural infection in a wild bird. Virus isolated. (J115.13.w3)

LARIDAE (Laridae - Skuas, Terns, Gulls, Puffins, Auks (Family))

Larus atricilla - Laughing gull:

  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA (Wildlife Conservation  Society collections, New York City) 1999. Natural infection in two birds, death or euthanasia due to severe illness. West Nile virus/viral antigen detected. (J26.37.w1)
  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infections, including no history of clinical illness, clinical illness and recovery and death. Found positive for WNV specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralisation assay. (P30.1.w3)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection in captivity. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)

Larus argentatus - Herring gull:

  • USA (New York State) 1999. Natural infection. WN virus isolated from one individual dead bird. (J84.7.w2)
  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

"Larus argentatus/cachinnans" (Larus (Genus)):

  • Azerbaijan. Natural infection. Virus isolated. (J115.13.w3)

Larus cachinnans - Yellow-legged gull (Larus (Genus)):

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Larus crassirostris - Black-tailed gull  (Larus (Genus)):

  • Experimental infection. High viraemia and high lethality. (J115.13.w3)

Larus delawarensis - Ring-billed gull:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w5)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)
  • USA. Experimental infection, direct transmission bird-to-bird. (W27.07Nov02.wnv1)
  • Experimental infection of two birds via mosquito bite with a New York 99 strain. Detectable viraemia for 4-7 days (mean 5.5 days), clinical signs and death, detectable cloacal shedding of virus in 2/2 birds (100%), detectable oral shedding of virus in 2/2 birds (100%). (J84.9.w2)

Larus fuscus - Lesser black-backed gull:

  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a winter visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 4/21 individuals (19%). (J91.18.w1)

Larus leucophthalmus - White-eyed gull (Larus (Genus)):

  • Israel 1999. Natural infection. Virus isolated. (J84.7.w28)

Larus marinus - Great black backed gull:

  • USA 1999-2001. Natural infection. Found positive for WN virus in surveillance efforts. (W8.Nov01.WNV2)
  • USA 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w5)
  • USA (New York State) 2000. Natural infection, fatal. West Nile virus infection confirmed. (J84.7.w15)

Larus minutus - Little gull:

  • Europe [date not stated]. WN virus antibodies often detected. (J115.13.w3)

Larus modestus - Grey gull (Larus (Genus)):

  • USA (New York City, Wildlife Conservation Society collections) June 1999-February 2000. Natural infection with mortality. Found positive for WNV specific antibodies on plaque reduction neutralization assay. (P30.1.w3)

Larus ridibundus - Common black-headed gull:

  • Israel, 1965-1966. Natural infection in a winter visitor species. Group B arbovirus (probably WN virus) haemagglutination inhibition antibodies detected in 1/117 individuals (1%). (J91.18.w1)
  • Slovakia 1971-1973. Natural infection, no report of clinical illness. Virus