Trichostrongylus Infection (with special reference to Waterfowl and Red Grouse) (Parasitic Disease)

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease
Nematode worm Trichostrongylus tenuis (B12.55.w1, B24, B48.20.w20)
Infective "Taxa"	Trichostrongylus tenuis
Non-infective agents	--
Physical agents	-- Indirect / Secondary

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References
Related Techniques	--

Major References / Reviews
Code and Title List	B12.55.w1, B15, B24, B36.35.w35, B46, B48.20.w20.,
Other References
Code and Title List	B91

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Clinical Characteristics and Pathology

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics
Gastrointestinal disease which, in game birds, in severe cases, may produce an acute haemorrhagic typhilitis which may result in death.
WATERFOWL	Rarely clinical disease (diarrhoea, anorexia, emaciation, anaemia), associated with haemorrhagic typhlitis.
Clinical Characteristics	Clinical signs in red grouse (Lagopus lagopus - Willow ptarmigan): ACUTE: Haemorrhagic typhylitis Death (B46) CHRONIC Weight loss (e.g. 5-6 ounces versus normal 13-14 ounces for adult grouse). Anaemia Signs of malnutrition and emaciation. Dark plumage. (B46, B48.20.w20)
	WATERFOWL	Diarrhoea, anorexia, emaciation, anaemia with heavy infections (B24)
Incubation	WATERFOWL	Mature worms in seven days after infection (B24).
Mortality / Morbidity	WATERFOWL	Clinical disease only with heavy parasite burden (B12.55.w1); mortality has been reported in goslings (B24, B48.20.w20).
Pathology	Pathology: Caeca distended, congested with inflamed mucosa, greatly thickened mucosal ridges. Contents of caeca yellowish-white, dry, caked, solid, cheesy consistency. (B48.20.w20)
Pathology	WATERFOWL	Haemorrhagic typhlitis (B24).

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Human Health Considerations

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Susceptibility / Transmission

General information on Susceptibility / Transmission

Susceptibility:

Heaviest mortality occurs in the Fall and Spring.
The young birds of the year's hatching are the main ones affected.
(B48.20.w20)

Transmission:

Direct life cycle. Nematode eggs are voided in the faeces.
Larvae moult twice
Pigeon or other susceptible host the swallows the nematode egg and becomes reinfected.
(B48.20.w20)

WATERFOWL

Clinical disease only with heavy parasite burden (B12.55.w1).

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Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

Disease reported in:

Hosts include species within the orders Anseriformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes:
- Gallus gallus, Lagopus scoticus (Lagopus lagopus - Willow ptarmigan ), Meleagis galloparvo, Numida meleagris, Grey partridge (Perdix perdix), Common pheasant Phaesinus colchicus, Colinus virginianus, Otis tarda. (B48.20.w20)
Young goslings (B48.20.w20).
Lesser snow goose goslings Anser caerulescens caerulescens in Canada (J1.32.w1, B15).

Infection also recorded in:

Ducks and geese (B36.35.w35).
Anas platyrhynchos - mallard, Anas platyrhynchos domesticus domestic duck, Anser albifrons white-fronted goose, Anser anser- greylag goose, Anser anser domesticus domestic goose, Anser (Chen) caerulescens snow goose, Branta canadensis - Canada goose (B48.20.w20).
Snow goose Anser caerulescens and white-fronted goose Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4)
Anser anser - Greylag goose, Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose, Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose, Anser brachyrhynchus - Pink-footed goose, Anser caerulescens - Snow goose, Anser fabalis - Bean goose, Branta canadensis - Canada goose, Cygnus atratus - Black swan, Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan, Cygnus cygnus - Whooper swan, Chloephaga picta - Upland goose, Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck, Anas formosa - Baikal teal, Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon, Anas strepera - Gadwall, Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck, Chenonetta jubata - Maned duck.. (B91)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken).

Host species with further information available are listed below:

WATERFOWL Host Species List

Anser anser - Greylag goose
Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose
Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose
Anser brachyrhynchus - Pink-footed goose
Anser caerulescens - Snow goose
Anser fabalis - Bean goose
Branta canadensis - Canada goose
Cygnus atratus - Black swan
Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan
Cygnus cygnus - Whooper swan
Chloephaga picta - Upland goose
Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck
Anas formosa - Baikal teal
Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon
Anas strepera - Gadwall
Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck
Chenonetta jubata - Maned duck
Lagopus lagopus - Willow ptarmigan
Perdix perdix - Grey partridge
Phasianus colchicus - Common pheasant

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Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

Disease reported in:

Lesser snow goose goslings Anser caerulescens caerulescens in Canada (J1.32.w1, B15).

Infection also recorded in:

Snow goose Anser caerulescens and white-fronted goose Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4)

Host species with further information available are listed below:

WATERFOWL Host Species List

Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose
Anser caerulescens - Snow goose

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Environment/Geography

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

Heavy mortality in autumn and spring in red grouse (Lagopus lagopus - Willow ptarmigan) in the UK (B48.20.w20).

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

Europe, Asia, North America (J1.32.w1, J1.33.w4, B24).
South Africa (Natal), Russian Turkestan (Asia), Europe (France, Germany, GB, Denmark, USSR, USA.B48.20.w20

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

Europe, USA, Canada (J1.32.w1, J1.33.w4, B36.35.w35).
UK (B48.20.w20).

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General Investigation / Diagnosis

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
BIRDS	Post mortem examination findings: pathological changes, presence of Trichostrongylus tenuis in the caeca. (B48.20.w20)
Related Techniques	Physical Examination - General Necropsy - General Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

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Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)
WATERFOWL	--

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Treatment and Control

Specific Medical Treatment
On game farms, the use of Levamisole in the drinking water has been successful. (B46) For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures
Related Techniques	Treatment and Care - General

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General Nursing and Surgical Techniques
--
Related Techniques	--

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Preventative Measures
Vaccination	WATERFOWL	--
Prophylactic Treatment	WATERFOWL	For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures
Related Techniques	Treatment and Care - General Preventative Medicine for Birds - General

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Environmental and Population Control Measures
General Environment Changes, Cleaning and Disinfection	On game farms it is important that the accumulation of larvae should be minimised by moving the pens regularly. Ideally, runs should be placed in different areas in successive years. For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures
Population Control Measures	WATERFOWL	--
Isolation, Quarantine and Screening	WATERFOWL	--
Related Techniques	Preventative Medicine for Birds - General Environmental and Population Management - General

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