Diseases / List of Parasitic Diseases / Disease description:
Tetrameres (Nematode) Infection in Waterfowl

INFORMATION AVAILABLE

GENERAL INFORMATION

CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS & PATHOLOGY

INVESTIGATION & DIAGNOSIS

TREATMENT & CONTROL

SUSCEPTIBILITY & TRANSMISSION

ENVIRONMENT & GEOGRAPHY

Click image to return to Waterfowl Contents FlowchartWaterfowl Module Contents

Click image for list of Waterfowl Species
Click image for list of Waterfowl Agents
Click image for list of Waterfowl Diseases
Click image for list of Waterfowl Environmental Events / Factors

Return to top of  page

General and References

Disease Summary
WATERFOWL Nematode infection of the proventriculus; infection common but clinical disease rare.

Return to top of  page

Alternative Names (Synonyms)
  • --

Return to top of  page

Disease Type
 Parasitic - Roundworms

Return to top of  page

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease
Tetrameres spp. Tetrameres fissispina (wide distribution) and Tetrameres crami (synonym Tropisurus crami)(North America); Tetrameres americana (nematode worms) (B24, B48.20.w20).

Infective "Taxa"

Non-infective agents

 --

Physical agents

 -- Indirect / Secondary

Return to top of  page

References

Disease Author

 Debra Bourne
Click image for main Reference Section

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

 B10.26.w11, B12.55.w1, B13.46.w1, B15, B16.19.w1, B24, 34, B48.20.w20
J1.30.w3
J4.99.w1

Other References

Code and Title List

 B91, B34,
J1.11.w5, J1.13.w7, J1.16.w8, J1.17.w6, J1.22.w4, J1.33.w4
J14.11.w1

Return to top of  page

Clinical Characteristics and Pathology

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

 WATERFOWL Damage to proventriculus, and blood loss, leading to impaired digestion, emaciation and anaemia, sometimes deaths.

Clinical Characteristics

 WATERFOWL May result in anorexia, diarrhoea, poor growth, poor condition, emaciation and anaemia, sometimes death. (B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1, B48.20.w20).

Incubation

 WATERFOWL Common infection of the proventriculus in North America, Europe and Asia (B15). Clinical signs may be seen with as few as 100 female worms and heavy burdens may cause mortality (B12.55.w1, B48.20.w20).

Mortality / Morbidity

 WATERFOWL --

Pathology

 WATERFOWL Anaemia (female worms feed on blood) and proventricular dystrophy.

Gross:

  • Proventriculus - May be inflamed and enlarged, with thickened wall and swollen mucosa containing roundish structures. Female worms (large, globular) in distended mucosal glands and males on mucosal surface or with female in gland.

Histopathology:

  • Proventriculus - Distended crypts, adult female parasites surrounded by thin fibrous cysts; non-functional secretory glands. Local inflammation sometimes occurs, with infiltration of eosinophils, macrophages and lesser numbers of lymphocytes and epithelioid cells; also fibroplasia.

(J1.30.w3, J14.11.w1, B10.26.w11, B12.55.w1, B13.46.w1, B15, B16.19.w1, B24, B48.20.w20).

Return to top of  page

Human Health Considerations
--

Return to top of  page

Susceptibility / Transmission

General information on Susceptibility / Transmission
WATERFOWL Susceptibility:
  • Juveniles (ducklings) are particularly susceptible (B40.28.w28).
  • Clinical disease may be caused by small to medium burdens, e.g. of 100 or more females (B12.55.w1, B48.20.w20).

Transmission:

  • Transmission is by ingestion of intermediate hosts. Intermediate hosts of Tetrameres crami are aquatic crustacea (amphipods) such as Gammarus spp. , Daphnia spp. and Hyalella spp.
  • Intermediate hosts of Tetrameres americana are grasshoppers and cockroach (B15, B24, B48.20.w20).

Return to top of  page

Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:
  • Anas boschas domesticus Domestic duck, Anas platyrhynchos Mallard, Anas rubripes American black duck, Anas strepera (Chaulelasmus streperus) Gadwall, Mareca (Anas) americana American wigeon, Anas crecca (Nettion carolinensis) green-winged teal, Nyroca (Aythya) marila Greater scaup, Nyroca (Aythya) affinis lesser scaup, Anas (Querquedula) discors blue-winged teal, Anas (Spatula) clypeata northern shoveler in North America (B48.20.w20).
  • Massive infection (more than 100 worms) in a wild trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator with concurrent gizzard worm Amidostomum anseris infection, in Canada (J14.11.w1).
  • Reported as 'frequently present', but without causing 'any noteworthy damage' in many species of ducks in the Western Lakes Areas, USA (J4.99.w1).
  • Recorded in wild black-bellied whistling duck Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.w5).
  • Recorded in wild northern shovelers Anas clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Recorded in wild mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca, blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma, USA (J1.16.w8).
  • Recorded in Mexican duck Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Recorded in white-fronted geese Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4).
  • Recorded in wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).
  • Anseranas semipalmata - Magpie goose (Tetrameres fissispina), Anser anser - Greylag goose (Tetrameres fissispina), Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose (Tetrameres fissispina), Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose (Tetrameres fissispina), Anser caerulescens - Snow goose (Tetrameres crami),  Anser indicus - Bar-headed goose (Tetrameres fissispina), Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan (Tetrameres crami)Cygnus cygnus buccinator - Trumpeter swan (Tetrameres crami), Cygnus melanocoryphus - Black-necked swan (Tetrameres fissispina), Tadorna ferruginea - Ruddy shelduck (Tetrameres fissispina), Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami, Tetrameres americana),  Anas acuta - Northern pintail (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Anas americana - American wigeon (Tetrameres crami), Anas angustirostris - Marbled teal (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Anas crecca - Common teal (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Anas cyanoptera - Cinnamon teal (Tetrameres crami), Anas discors - Blue-winged teal [taken to be synonymous with Anas erythrorhyncha in this reference] (Tetrameres crami), Anas falcata - Falcated duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas formosa - Baikal teal (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas poecilorhyncha - Spot-billed duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas querquedula - Garganey (Tetrameres fissispina), Anas rubripes - American black duck (Tetrameres crami), Anas strepera - Gadwall (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Anas superciliosa - Pacific black duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Somateria mollissima - Common eider (Tetrameres fissispina), Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup (Tetrameres crami), Aythya americana - Redhead (Tetrameres crami), Aythya collaris - Ring-necked duck (Tetrameres crami), Aythya ferina - Common pochard (Tetrameres fissispina), Aythya fuligula - Tufted duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Aythya marila - Greater scaup (Tetrameres americana, Tetrameres crami), Aythya nyroca - Ferruginous pochard (Tetrameres fissispina), Aythya valisineria - Canvasback (Tetrameres crami), Netta rufina - Red-crested pochard (Tetrameres fissispina), Aix galericulata - Mandarin duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Aix sponsa - Wood duck (Tetrameres crami), Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Bucephala albeola - Bufflehead (Tetrameres crami), Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye (Tetrameres fissispina,Tetrameres crami), Clangula hyemalis - Long-tailed duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Histrionicus histrionicus - Harlequin duck (Tetrameres fissispina), Melanitta fusca - White-winged scoter (Tetrameres fissispina), Melanitta nigra - Black scoter (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Mergus albellus - Smew (Tetrameres fissispina),  Mergus merganser - Common merganser (Tetrameres fissispina, Tetrameres crami), Mergus serrator - Red-breasted merganser (Tetrameres crami), Oxyura jamaicensis - Ruddy duck (Tetrameres crami), Oxyura leucocephala - White-headed duck (Tetrameres fissispina). (B91)

WATERFOWL Host Species List

Return to top of  page

Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:
  • Massive infection (more than 100 worms) causing inflammation of the proventriculus in a wild trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator with concurrent gizzard worm Amidostomum anseris infection, in Canada (J14.11.w1).
  • Reported as 'frequently present', but without causing 'any noteworthy damage' in many species of ducks in the Western Lakes Areas, USA (J4.99.w1).
  • Recorded in wild black-bellied whistling duck Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.w5).
  • Recorded in wild northern shovelers Anas clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Recorded in wild mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca, blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma, USA (J1.16.w8).
  • Recorded in Mexican duck Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Recorded in white-fronted geese Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4).
  • Recorded in wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).

WATERFOWL Host Species List

Return to top of  page

Environment/Geography
General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality
  • Uncommon infection in collections as intermediate hosts usually consumed and eliminated by the enclosed birds (B10.26.w1).
  • Life cycle suggests might build up during the summer, therefore producing a large population dangerous to late-hatched ducklings (B15).

Return to top of  page

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

North America, Europe, Asia (B15).

Return to top of  page

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

USA, Canada and elsewhere (J14.11.w1, B24).

Return to top of  page

General Investigation / Diagnosis

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
WATERFOWL Parasites in mucus glands of proventriculus, may be seen most easily on inspection of serosal surface.  Tetrameres crami males up to 4.1mm, females 1.5-3.5mm by 1.2-2.2mm; Tetrameres fissispina males 3-6mm, females 2.5-6 by 1-3.5mm. Females may be blood-red, almost spherical, within proventricular glands. Males slender, four rows of spines on body cuticle, usually free in lumen of proventriculus (B12.55.w1,B13.46.w1, B24, B48.20.w20).
Related Techniques
WaterfowlINDEXDisInvTrCntr.gif (2325 bytes)

Return to top of  page

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)
WATERFOWL --

Return to top of  page

Treatment and Control

Specific Medical Treatment
 
WATERFOWL
  • Piperazine (piprazine) 45-200mg/kg oral single dose, or 6-10g per four litres drinking water for four days (B13.46.w1, B34).

For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures

Related Techniques
WaterfowlINDEXDisInvTrCntr.gif (2325 bytes)

Return to top of  page

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques
WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques

--
WaterfowlINDEXDisInvTrCntr.gif (2325 bytes)

Return to top of  page

Preventative Measures
Vaccination WATERFOWL --
Prophylactic Treatment

WATERFOWL

 For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures
Related Techniques
WaterfowlINDEXDisInvTrCntr.gif (2325 bytes)

Return to top of  page

Environmental and Population  Control Measures
General Environment Changes, Cleaning and Disinfection

WATERFOWL

 --
Population Control Measures WATERFOWL --
Isolation, Quarantine and Screening WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques
WaterfowlINDEXDisInvTrCntr.gif (2325 bytes)

Return to top of  page