• Bile duct hookworm infection (J62.38.w2)
• Grammocephalosis (J62.38.w2)

See also: Filariasis of Elephants

• Grammocephalus hybridatus (B24)
  • Males 37 mm long, females 37 mm long, eggs 58-63 x 29-38 µm. (B24)
• Grammocephalus varedatus (B24)
  • Males 55 mm long, females 47 mm long, eggs 68 x 37 µm. (B24)

Specifically recorded for Loxodonta africana - African Elephant:

• Grammocephalus clathratus (B24, J4.183.w3, J11.60.w1)
  • Males 45-52 mm long, females 36 mm long, eggs 50 x 35 µm. (B24)

Grammocephalus spp. have an infundibuliform buccal capsule, with a pair each of triangular lateral lancets and subventral lancets. There is a dorsal cone. Running forward alongside the oesophagus is an intestinal diverticulum. (B24)

Further information on Disease Agents has only been incorporated for agents recorded in species for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Only those agents with further information available are linked below:

• Ancylostomatidae - (Family):
  • Grammocephalus hybridatus 
  • Grammocephalus varedatus 
  • Grammocephalus clathratus 

Grammocephalus spp. bile duct hookworms cause biliary cirrhosis in elephants. (P80.1.w1)

In Elephants:

Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant:

• Grammocephalus hybridatus and Grammocephalus varedatus have been reported in the bile ducts. (B24)

Loxodonta africana - African Elephant:

• Grammocephalus clathratus occurs in the bile ducts. (B24, J11.60.w1, J62.38.w2)
• Grammocephalus clathratus has been found post mortem adjacent to bile stones; this parasite has been found associated with cholangitis. (J4.183.w3)

• In one Loxodonta africana - African Elephant imported to the USA from Africa and dying from trauma a few months later, 25 Grammocephalus clathratus were found in the main bile duct. There was no obvious associated gross pathology, but no histopathology was carried out, due to autolysis. (J11.60.w10
• In Loxodonta africana - African Elephant in Kruger National Park, South Africa, various pathological changes were noted associated with Grammocephalus clathratus: (J62.38.w2)
  • Bile ducts (medium, large and main) were always thickened in infected elephants. These also had small disseminated haemorrhages, erosions, ulcers and necrotic foci. It was noted that the terminal, extrahepatic portion of the bile duct was less severely affected. (J62.38.w2)

Histopathology

• In Loxodonta africana - African Elephant in Kruger National Park, South Africa with Grammocephalus clathratus infection: (J62.38.w2)
  • In the bile ducts, epithelial hyperplasia, ulceration, micro-abscessation of the thickened wall, and both subepithelialy and in deeper layers of the ducts was an inflammatory infiltrate of eosinophils and round cells. There were small eosinophilic or putulent microgranulomas and often secondary bacterial infection. (J62.38.w2)
  • While small bile ducts in portal triads were not affected, sometimes, in the immediate vicinity of affected large ducts, there was mild inflammation (eosinophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells) and very mild bile duct proliferation. (J62.38.w2)
  • The pancreatic duct was affected in some elephants, with mild subacute reactions, presumed due to Grammocephalus infection, but without parasites being found at this location. Subacute pancreatitis was noted adjacent to affected areas. (J62.38.w2)

• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Treatment and Care - General
• Environmental Assessment
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

• Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant
• Loxodonta africana - African Elephant

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)