DISEASE SUMMARY PAGE

Liver Fluke Infection in Elephants:

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Summary Information
Diseases / List of Parasitic Diseases / Disease summary
Alternative Names --

See also:

Disease Agents
  • Specifically recorded for Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant:
    • Fasciola hepatica (B24, B64.27.w4, B214.3.7.w3)
    • Fasciola jacksoni (B24, J1.14.w6, B212.w33, B214.3.7.w3, B455.w7, J350.10.w1, J379.3.w1, J379.5.w1, J387.16.w1) Found in Burma and India, in the bile ducts and duodenum. Adults 12 - 14 mm long, 9.0 - 12.5 mm wide and central thickness 1.5 - 2.0 mm. (J379.3.w1, J379.5.w1)
      • Synonyms Cladocoelium elephantis Diesing, 1958; Distomum elephantis Diesing, 1858; Distomum jacksoni Braun, 1892; Distomum jacksonii Braun, 1892; Fasciolopsis jacksoni Looss, 1899. (J379.3.w1)
  • Specifically recorded for Loxodonta africana - African Elephant:  
    • Fasciola robustum (B64.27.w4, B214.3.7.w3)

Further information on Disease Agents has only been incorporated for agents recorded in species for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Only those agents with further information available are linked below:

Infectious Agent(s) Fasciola spp. (Fasciolidae - (Family))
Non-infectious Agent(s) --
Physical Agent(s) --
General Description

In Elephants:

  • Fasciola hepatica occurs in elephants. (B24)

Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant:

  • Fasciola jacksoni infection was reported in a group of captive elephants in Malaysia. (J1.14.w6)
  • Wild elephants in Assam, India, had an overall prevalence rate of 33.78%, while in captive elephants prevalence rates varied between locations: 42.50%, 62.28% and 18.18%. (J380.11.w1)
  • Found in two captive elephants at Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. Intestinal amphistomes were also present. See: Intestinal Fluke Infection in Elephants (J380.13.w1)

Loxodonta africana - African Elephant:

Clinical signs:

(B64.27.w4, B212.w33, B455.w7, B336.53.w53, J1.14.w6, J380.11.w1)
  • Loss of weight, "depraved appetite", submandibular oedema, ventral abdominal oedema, and pale mucous membranes. (J1.14.w6)
    • Anaemia and hypoproteinaemia were found, with severe anaemia in the most severely (fatally) affected elephant. (J1.14.w6)
  • Anorexia, constipation, malodorous faeces, dehydration, anaemia and jaundice were noted in elephants, particularly young elephants, in Assam, India. (J380.11.w1)
    • Some adult elephants did not show any obvious clinical signs. (J380.11.w1)
  • With chronic disease, hypoproteinaemia occurs due to hyperplastic cholangitis allowing plasma protein leakage. (B455.w7)
  • Depression, variable appetite, frequent yawning, thirst, pale or yellowish mucous membranes, sometimes puffiness around the head and shoulders, dry, scurfy skin indicating general unthriftiness, sometimes eating of earth, severe and sometimes persistent dark, foul-smelling diarrhoea containing flukes, debility, weight loss, oedema, extreme exhaustion and death. (B212.w33)

Mortality:

  • Mortality can be high. (J350.10.w1)
  • Death occurred some in elephants with severe clinical signs in Assam, India. (J380.11.w1)
  • Severe disease can be fatal. (B212.w33)

Susceptibility:

  • In Assam, India, young elephants were most affected, with clinical disease, sometimes fatal, while some old adults showed no apparent clinical signs. (J380.11.w1)
Further Information Pathology:
  • In elephants dying with severe infection (although flukes were not proven to be the cause of death), cystic and larval forms were found in large numbers in the liver, lungs and intestines. (B212.w33)
  • Hepatic: 
    • Flukes in the bile ducts. (B212.w33)
    • Numerous trematodes in the bile ducts; this may cause bile stone formation (see Cholelithiasis in Elephants). (B64.27.w4, J1.14.w6)
    • Massive liver damage was noted in some elephants in Assam, India. (J380.11.w1)
    • Bile ducts packed with massive numbers of flukes and exudate. Liver hard and fibrosed. (J387.16.w1)
  • Cardiac: In one elephant in India, an embolus was found in a superficial epicardial vessel. Immature parasites were found in a pericardial vessel. (J380.11.w1)

Histopathology:

  • Hepatic: Excessive fibrous tissue proliferation causing focal periportal cirrhosis and pseudolobulation, with a mild infiltration of mononuclear cells. (J387.16.w1)
  • Bile ducts: epithelial surface covered in a "necrotic homogenous mass admixed with erythrocytes and eggs of the parasites." (J387.16.w1)

Diagnosis/Investigations:

  • Haematology and biochemistry before treatment revealed anaemia and hypoproteinaemia, respectively. (J1.14.w6)
  • Faecal flotation to detect eggs. (B455.w7)
    • Faeces were examined for trematode eggs by a zinc sulphate flotation technique, followed by identification. (B64.27.w4, B336.53.w53, J1.14.w6)
    • Trematode eggs, 60 - 72 x 108 - 132 µm, at six to 83 eggs per gram faeces, were found. (J1.14.w6)
    • Note: Faecal egg counts may be affected by the time of day at which faeces are collected. A study in India recorded average counts (eggs per gram) of 4.89 (morning), 2.47 (noon) and 2.76 (evening), respectively. (J380.11.w1)
  • The bromsulphalein (sulphobromophthalein, BSP) clearance test may be used to detect liver damage associated with the parasites. (B450.5.w5, J1.14.w6)
    • BSP clearance rates varied from 3.6 - 6.5 minutes (half-time) and were noted to be slower in two elephants (5.1 and 6.5 mins) than in two others (3.6 and 4.3 mins). One of those with slow BSP clearance had clinical signs including submandibular oedema. The normal BSP clearance time for elephants is not known. (J1.14.w6)
  • In elephants dying with severe infection (although flukes were not proven to be the cause of death), cystic and larval forms were found in large numbers in the liver, lungs and intestines. (B212.w33)

Treatment:

  • Trichoromehylbenzol. (B64.27.w4)
  • Nitroxynil 10mg/kg by subcutaneous injection. There was a local reaction at the injection site in seven of the nine animals treated. No systemic reaction was recorded. (J1.14.w6)
  • Triclabendazole (9 mg/kg, not exceeding 7200 mg/animal) was found to be 100% effective in treatment of elephants in Assam, India. (J380.11.w1)
  • Oxyclozanide (7.5 mg/kg, not exceeding 6.8 g/animal) was found to be 72.16% effective in treatment of elephants in Assam, India. (J380.11.w1)
  • Chlorsulon at 7 mg/kg body weight orally, two doses at an interval of 45 to 60 days. (B455.w7)
  • Albendazole is effective. (B455.w7)

Prevention/Control:

  • Faecal examination for parasites should be performed at least once a year. More frequent examinations are recommended in endemic areas. (B450.5.w5)
  • Avoid grazing elephants on wet, marshy ground. (B212.w33, J350.10.w1)
Associated Techniques
Host taxa groups /species Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken).

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)

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