| Summary Information |
| Diseases
/
List of Parasitic Diseases
/ Disease summary |
| Alternative Names |
-
Strongylosis in elephants
-
Trychostrongyle infection in elephants
-
Hookworm infection in elephants
See also:
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| Disease Agents |
A
variety of gastro-intestinal nematodes have been identified in elephants. (B24,
B64.27.w4,
B214.3.7.w3,
B336.53.w53,
B453.7.w7, D301.3.w3,
J11.55.w1,
J24.26.w1,
J62.38.w2)
These include (but are not limited to):
Specifically recorded for Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant:
- Leiperenia galebi. (B24)
- Choniangium epistomum. (B24)
- Choniangium magnostomum. (B24)
- Quilonia spp.
- In domesticated elephants in Thailand (found in the faeces after
anthelmintic treatment). (J210.38.w1)
- In circus elephants in India. (J382.39.w1)
- In an elephant recently arrived in the USA from Thailand, in the
intestines. (J11.55.w1)
- Quilonia renniei. (B,
24J1.14.w6)
- In the intestine at necropsy of an elephant
calf which died in the Thekkady forest area in Kerala, India. (J324.18.w2)
- Quilonia travanca (B24)
- In elephants in Kerala (found in the faeces
after anthelmintic treatment). (J383.13.w1)
- Parabronema indicum (Acuariinae) in the stomach; 6-10 mm
long. (J24.26.w1)
- Parabronema sp. in an elephant recently arrived in the USA
from Thailand, in the intestines. (J11.55.w1)
- Equinurbia sipunculiformis in the caecum. (B24)
- In the large intestine. (J379.5.w1)
- Decrusia sp. in circus elephants in India. (J382.39.w1)
- Decrusia additicta in the large intestine. (B24)
- In the intestine at necropsy of an
elephant calf which died in the Thekkady forest area in Kerala, India.
(J324.18.w2)
- Amire pileata in the intestine at necropsy of an elephant
calf which died in the Thekkady forest area in Kerala, India. (J324.18.w2)
- Khalilia pileata in the large intestine. (B24)
- Ancylostomatidae
- (Family)
(hookworms)
- Bathmostomum sangrei in the caecum. (B24,
B64.27.w4,
B214.3.7.w3)
Males 15 - 16 mm long, females 20 mm, eggs 45 x 30 µm. "The
genus resembles other ucinarids, but the wall of the buccal
capsule is markedly fissured giving the capsule a ridged
appearance. A pair of subventral teeth occur." (B24)
- Previously known as Uncinaria os papillatum
- Bathmostomum sangeri hookworms (stout, 14 - 18 mm long)
in the small intestines. (J24.26.w1)
- Bathmostomum sangeri in the small intestines. (J11.55.w1)
- In elephants in Kerala (found in the faeces after anthelmintic
treatment). (J383.13.w1)
- Strongyloididae - (Family)
- Strongyloides elephantis sp. n. in the small intestine. (J11.55.w1)
- Trichonematidae (taxonomy uncertain) - (Family)
- Murshidia spp.(B24,
J11.55.w1,
J12.75.w2,
J24.26.w1,
J210.38.w1,
J382.39.w1)
- In the intestine at necropsy of an elephant
calf which died in the Thekkady forest area in Kerala, India.
(J324.18.w2)
- Murshida murshida. (J1.14.w6,
J12.65.w2)
- Murshida falcifera. (Cobbold, 1882) in the large
intestines of elephants in Indonesia. It was noted that this
parasite had previously been recorded in elephants in India, Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Burma and Indonesia. (J381.64.w1)
- In domesticated elephants in Thailand (found in the faeces
after anthelmintic treatment). (J210.38.w1)
- In elephants in Kerala (found in the faeces after
anthelmintic treatment). (J383.13.w1)
- Murshida falcifer (Cobbold, 1888) in the large
intestine. (J379.5.w1)
- Murshida neveulemairei (Witenberg, 1925) Yorke and
Maplestone, 1926.
- In domesticated elephants in Thailand (found in the faeces
after anthelmintic treatment). (J210.38.w1)
- In an elephant recently arrived in the USA from Thailand, in
the intestines. (J11.55.w1)
- Trichostrongylidae - (Family)
Specifically recorded for Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant:
Specifically recorded for Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant:
- Quilonia magna in the caecum of a freshly dead elephant at
Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic.
(J381.71.w1)
- Quilonia loxodontae in the caecum and colon of a freshly dead
elephant at Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. The type host is
from within the range of the Forest elephant; this parasite may be
specific to Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant.
(J381.71.w1)
- Quilonia sp. in the caecum of a freshly dead elephant at
Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. There were 38 to 40 petals in
th leaf crown (compared with 6 in Quilonia loxodontae. (J381.71.w1)
- Murshidia linstowi in the colon of a freshly dead elephant at
Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. All the records for this
nematode fall within the range of the Forest elephant. (J381.71.w1)
- Murshidia vuylstekae in the caecum of a freshly dead elephant
at Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. The second record, with the
first being in a Forest elephant captured near Brazzaville, Congo. (J381.71.w1)
- Decrusia sp. in the colon of a freshly dead elephant at
Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. The first record of this genus
from Africa (previously Decrusia has been described only from Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant). (J381.71.w1)
- Equinurbia sp. in the colon of a freshly dead elephant at
Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic. The first record of this genus
from Africa (previously Equinurbia has been described only from
Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant). (J381.71.w1)
- Parabronema sp.; a single larva in the stomach of a freshly
dead elephant at Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic.
(J381.71.w1)
- Leiperenia leiperi in the caecum of a freshly dead elephant
at Gobounga Bai, Central African Republic.
(J381.71.w1)
Further information on Disease Agents has only been
incorporated for agents recorded in species for which a full Wildpro "Health
and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature
review has been undertaken). Only those agents with further information available are
linked below:
|
| Infectious
Agent(s) |
Specifically recorded for Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant:
Specifically recorded for Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant:
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| Non-infectious
Agent(s) |
-- |
| Physical
Agent(s) |
--
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| General
Description |
In Elephants:
Clinical signs:
- Anorexia. (J12.65.w1,
J12.65.w2, J324.16.w1)
- Loss of weight. (J12.65.w1,
J24.26.w1)
- Diarrhoea,
which may be foul smelling.
(B64.27.w4,
J12.65.w1, J12.65.w2,
J24.26.w1, J324.16.w1)
- Debility. (J12.65.w2)
- Case reports:
- Anorexia, diarrhoea, debility, loss of condition and eating of soil were
seen in Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant with a mixed trichostrongyle infection. (J12.65.w1)
- Anorexia, debility and diarrhoea were noted in three Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant with Murshida murshida infection. (J12.65.w2)
- Inappetance (variable), pallor of the conjunctiva, and slight
diarrhoea with a foul smell. (J324.16.w1)
- Severe anaemia,
emaciation and diarrhoea, fatal, were seen associated with heavy Bathmostomum
sangeri hookworm infection plus a large gastric abscess due to Parabronema
indicum infection, in an adult (14 years) Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant. (J24.26.w1)
- Inappetance and diarrhoea were noted in one elephant with a mixed
infection of amphistomes and strongyles in India. (J379.62.w1)
- Diarrhoea was noted in circus elephants with a mixed strongylosis (Murshidia
sp., Quilonia sp. and Decrusia sp.). (J382.39.w1)
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| Further Information |
Susceptibility
-
In Nehru National Park, Hyderabad, India, for the period 1987 -
1994, the overall incidence of strongyloidosis in elephants was
29.23%, varying from a low of 5.26% in the winter season to 42.10% in
the monsoon and 52.63% in the summer. (J324.16.w1)
-
In elephants in Kerala, which were treated with anthelmintics yearly,
strongyl eggs were present in seven of 44 dung samples examined in
2000, and in 3/55 samples examined in 2002. (J324.19.w1)
Gross Pathology:
- Gastro-intestinal
- Gastroenteritis, in some cases haemorrhagic. (J12.65.w1,
J24.26.w1)
- Bleeding gastric ulcers in association with Parabronema
rhodesiense infection of the gastric mucosa in Loxodonta africana
- African Elephants after capture in Kruger National Park, South Africa.
. (B70.B4.w1)
- Stress was considered to have contributed to enlargement of
parasite-related gastric ulcers (B70.B4.w1)
- With Parabronema indicum (6 - 10 mm long) in the stomach
of an Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant, an area 10 x 20 cm was affected by a diffuse
abscess in the submucosa and muscularis, with multiple ill-defined
loculi filled with creamy greenish, foul pus, ulcerating into the
stomach lumen; there were also several ulcers in the mucosa, up to
2cm in diameter, with suppuration extending into the submucosa. (J24.26.w1)
- Bathmostomum sangeri hookworms (stout, 14-18 mm long) in
the small intestines of an Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant were associated with a roughened mucosa
on which were multiple petechiae and small ulcers. The submucosa
was oedematous, often 1 cm thick and the intestinal contents were
watery and reddish-brown. (J24.26.w1)
- In an elephant recently arrived in the USA from Thailand, with
"extreme parasitism" (severe Bathmostomum sangeri
infection, Murshidia neveulemairei, Quilonia rennei,
Quilonia sp., Parabronema sp., Strongyloides
elephantis sp. n. and unidentified intestinal flukes, as well
as moderate elephant louse infection), anaemia, depression,
emaciation and death despite supportive treatment. (J11.55.w1)
- In the stomachs of elephants from Kruger National Park, Parabronema
africanum were found associated with small pustules and ulcers
of 3.0 - 50 mm diameter, in the anterior portion of the greater
curvature of the stomach, with elevated walls and surfaces covered
with yellowish exudate as well as the worms. (J62.38.w2)
Histopathology
- Gastro-intestinal
- In the stomachs of elephants from Kruger National Park, Parabronema
africanum appeared to invade the crypts and burrow into
the mucosa and submucosa. Parasitized crypts showed epithelial
metaplasia and there was a cellular reaction in the wall and around
the blood vessels, including eosinophils, neutrophils,
lymphocytes and plasma cells. Capillary proliferation and
fibroplasia were prominent; there was considerable development of
granulation tissue. In the superficial detritus, cocci were
numerous. (J62.38.w2)
Diagnosis/Investigations:
- Haematology may reveal anaemia. (J24.26.w1)
- Coproculture and identification. (J12.65.w1,
J12.65.w2, J12.75.w2)
- McMaster egg counting technique to determine eggs per gram (EPG).
(J12.65.w1, J12.65.w2)
- High number of nematode eggs per gram faeces:
- 300 - 1200 EPG. (J324.16.w1)
- 2,325 - 3,550 EPG with Murshida murshida infection in
three Asian elephants. (J12.65.w2)
Treatment:
- Fenbendazole
12 g dissolved in 200 ml of water orally in two divided doses at a
three-day interval. (J12.65.w1)
- Three days after the second dose, all elephants
showed no eggs in the faeces and the condition of the elephants then
improved. (J12.65.w1)
- Fenbendazole
5 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (J12.65.w2,
J379.62.w1)
- By seven days after treatment of elephants with Murshida
murshida infection, no nematode eggs were found in the faeces;
some worms (dead, and some viable) were voided in the faeces. The
elephants showed improved appetite and general condition. No
side-effects of treatment were seen. (J12.65.w2)
- By seven days the EPG had reduced from 700 - 1,400 EPG to zero.
(J379.62.w1)
- By two days after treatment, faecal egg counts declined to zero
in circus elephants with a mixed strongylosis (Murshidia
sp., Quilonia sp. and Decrusia sp.). (J382.39.w1)
- Fenbendazole
2-2.5 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Mebendazole
2.5-4 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Mebendazole
6-7 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (J210.38.w1)
- Levamisole
2.5-3 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Albendazole 2.5 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Albendazole 5 mg/kg bodyweight orally. (J324.16.w1)
- By three days post treatment the faeces no longer smelled foul
and the elephant's showed a slight general improvement. By seven
days their appetite had improved and the conjunctiva were
returning to normal colour and by four weeks their health was
considered to have returned to normal and no helminth ova were
found in the faeces. (J324.16.w1)
- Morantel tartrate 2-4 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Oxibendazole 2.5 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Parabendazole 6-10 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Tetramisole hydrochloride 3-5 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- [See Levamisole
for more information on tetramisole]
- Thiabendazole. [dose not stated]for treatment of Murshida
murshida and Quilonia renneie infection. (J1.14.w6)
- Thiabendazole 20 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Thiphanate 14 mg/kg orally as a single dose. (P502.1.w5)
- Ivermectin. (B70.B4.w1)
- Mebendazole
at 3.0 to 4.0 mg/kg orally was found to be 100% effective against
strongylosis in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
- Levamisole
at 3 mg/kg orally was found to be 100% effective against strongylosis
in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
- Morantel tartrate at 5 mg/kg orally was found to be 100% effective
against strongylosis in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
- Thiabendazole at 32 mg/kg was found to be 88 - 95% effective against
strongylosis in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
- Bephenium hydroxynaphthoate (25 mg/kg) was found to be 85.9 - 100%
effective against strongylosis in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
- Disophenol (3 mg/kg) was found to be 68.3 - 84.8% effective against
strongylosis in elephants in Kerala. (J383.13.w1)
Prevention/Control:
- Faecal examination for parasites should be performed at least once a
year. More frequent examinations are recommended in endemic areas. (B450.5.w5)
- Ivermectin is given at capture in Loxodonta africana
- African Elephants in Kruger National Park,
South Africa. (B70.B4.w1)
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| Associated Techniques |
|
| Host taxa groups /species |
Further information on Host species has only
been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and
Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature
review has been undertaken).
(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this
disease)
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