Diseases / List of Parasitic Diseases / Disease description:
Intestinal Fluke Infection in Waterfowl

INFORMATION AVAILABLE

GENERAL INFORMATION

CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS & PATHOLOGY

INVESTIGATION & DIAGNOSIS

TREATMENT & CONTROL

SUSCEPTIBILITY & TRANSMISSION

ENVIRONMENT & GEOGRAPHY

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General and References

Disease Summary
WATERFOWL Fluke (trematode) infection of the intestines, usually non-pathogenic but occasionally associated with debility, diarrhoea, enteritis, emaciation and deaths.

N. B. See also: Sphaeridiotrema (Intestinal Fluke) Infection; Cyathocotyle bushiensis (Intestinal Fluke) Infection.

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Alternative Names (Synonyms)
  • Intestinal trematode infection
  • Echinoparyphium recurvatum infection
  • Echinostomum revolutum infection
  • Notocotylus spp infection

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Disease Type
 Parasitic - Tapeworms and Flukes

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Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease
 Trematodes (flukes): Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Echinostomum revolutum, Notocotylus spp.

N. B. See also: Sphaeridiotrema (Intestinal Fluke) Infection; Cyathocotyle bushiensis (Intestinal Fluke) Infection.

Infective "Taxa"

Non-infective agents

 --

Physical agents

 -- Indirect / Secondary

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References

Disease Author

 Debra Bourne
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Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

 B9.6.w1, B10.26.w11, B11.39.w7, B18, B24, B91
J1.29.w2
J5.20.w2
J7.50.w1
J14.19.w1
J35.111.w1

Other References

Code and Title List

 J1.11.w5, J1.13.w6, J1.13.w7, J1.16.w8, J1.17.w6, J1.22.w4, J1.33.w4
J7.4.w1, J7.5.w1
J14.11.w1

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Clinical Characteristics and Pathology

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

 WATERFOWL Usually subclinical; sometimes associated with weakness, diarrhoea, emaciation, catarrhal enteritis and death.

N. B. See also: Sphaeridiotrema (Intestinal Fluke) Infection; Cyathocotyle bushiensis (Intestinal Fluke) Infection.

Clinical Characteristics

 WATERFOWL
  • May be found dead (J35.111.w1), or show weakness and emaciation (mixed infection infection of Notocotylus attenuatus and Echinostoma revolutum) (J5.20.w2), sometimes also with diarrhoea (J14.19.w1).
  • Emaciation, diarrhoea and ataxia reported in ducklings with Notocotylus attenuatus (B24) and copious diarrhoea and death in geese (B18); only diarrhoea was noted on experimental infection in ducklings (J1.29.w2)

Incubation

 WATERFOWL  Flukes Echinostoma revolutum mature in 11-24 days (J5.20.w2). Flukes Notocotylus attenuatus reach maturity 6-27 days after ingestion (J5.20.w2).

Mortality / Morbidity

 WATERFOWL
  • Clinical disease due to trematode infections in collections is rarely a problem as in most situations the intermediate hosts of trematodes are likely to be 'eaten out' by the waterfowl, thereby removing the problem; hosts may however be re-introduced, for example with fresh waterweed (B9.6.w1, B10.26.w11, B18).
  • Mortality reported occasionally in domestic, captive and wild waterfowl. Mortality rate of 3% recorded in domestic geese with mixed trematode infection (J5.20.w2).

Pathology

 WATERFOWL Gross Pathology:
  • General - Emaciation, absence of internal fat, gross contamination of vent with diarrhoeic excreta (J35.111.w1).
  • Gastro-intestinal tract - enteritis, sometimes described as 'severe catarrhal enteritis', affecting the small intestine. Small whitish trematodes visible on mucosa. (J5.20.w2, J14.19.w1, J35.111.w1 B11.39.w7).
  • Erosion of caecal mucosa, catarrhal mucoenteritis in clinical infection of ducklings and geese (B24); and severe enteritis in geese (B18) have been reported associated with Notocotylus sp. infection. No lesions were described associated with Notocotylus attenuatus in the large intestine in the mixed infection in geese (J5.20.w2) and only ballooning of the caeca with experimental infection with Notocotylus attenuatus in ducklings (J1.29.w2).

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Human Health Considerations
--

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Susceptibility / Transmission

General information on Susceptibility / Transmission
WATERFOWL Transmission:
  • By ingestion of intermediate host (sometimes, second intermediate host) freshwater snails and in some fluke species, frogs (J35.111.w1, B24).
  • By ingestion of metacercariae from snails on vegetation, snails etc. (J1.29.w2, J5.20.w2)

Susceptibility:

  • Susceptibility may be increased by overcrowding, and by ground feeding (J5.20.w2).

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Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:
Disease has been reported in:
  •  Mute swan Cygnus olor Echinoparyphium recurvatum in the UK (J35.111.w1).
  • Mute swan Cygnus olor in Scotland, UK, Echinoparyphium recurvatum (J7.50.w1).
  • Domestic Emden geese Anser anser domesticus (mixed infection Echinostomum revolutum and Notocotylus attenuatus ) in Minnesota, USA (J5.20.w2).
  • Free-flying dabbling ducks, mainly with Echinostomum revolutum, in British Columbia, Canada (J14.19.w1).
  • Versicolor (Silver) teal Anas versicolor adults in a collection in the UK, with Echinostomum spp. (J7.5.w1).
  • Adult common shelduck Tadorna tadorna and adult and juvenile Bahama (white-cheeked) pintail Anas bahamensis in a collection in the UK (J7.4.w1).
  • Disease reported in geese and ducklings with Notocotylus attenuatus (B24); experimental infection in domestic ducklings (J1.29.w2).
  • Disease with Notocotylus sp. in geese (B18).
  • In a wild Trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator which was also infected with gizzard worms, acanthocephala and cestodes (J14.11.w1).

Infection also recorded in:

  • Echinoparyphium recurvatum also recorded in greater scaup Aythya (Nyroca) marila, tufted duck Aythya (Nyroca) fuligula, domestic duck Anas platyrhynchos domesticus, common merganser (goosander) Mergus merganser merganser, and northern pintail Anas (Dafila) acuta (J35.111.w1).
  • Black-bellied whistling-ducks Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.w5).
  • Wild cinnamon teal Anas cyanoptera in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w6)
  • Wild northern shoveler Ana clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Wild mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca and blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma, USA (J1.16.w8).
  • Wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).
  • Wild Mexican ducks Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Canada goose Branta canadensis, snow geese Anser caerulescens and white-fronted geese Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4).
  • Anseranas semipalmata - Magpie goose (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Dendrocygna viduata - White-faced whistling-duck (Echinostoma revolutum), Anser anser - Grey-lag goose (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata) Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Hypoderaeum conoideum), Anser caerulescens - Snow goose (Notocotylus attenuatus), Anser erythropus - Lesser white-fronted goose (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anser fabalis - Bean goose (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anser indicus - Bar-headed goose (Notocotylus attenuatus), Branta bernicla - Brent goose (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Branta canadensis - Canada goose (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Branta leucopsis - Barnacle goose (Notocotylus attenuatus), Branta ruficollis - Red-breasted goose (Echinostoma revolutum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Cygnus atratus - Black swan (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan (Notocotylus attenuatus), Cygnus cygnus - Whooper swan (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Cygnus cygnus buccinator - Trumpeter swan (Echinostoma revolutum), Cygnus olor - Mute swan (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Cygnus melanocoryphus - Black-necked swan (Echinostoma revolutum), Neochen jubata - Orinoco goose (Echinostoma revolutum), Lophonetta   specularioides - Crested duck (Notocotylus attenuatus), Tadorna ferruginea - Ruddy shelduck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Tadorna tadornoides - Australian shelduck (Echinostoma revolutum), Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata),  Anas acuta - Northern pintail (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas americana - American wigeon (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas angustirostris - Marbled teal (Apatemon gracilis, Echinoparyphium recurvatum), Anas bahamensis - White-cheeked pintail (Zygocotyle lunata), Anas castanea - Chestnut teal (Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas crecca - Common teal (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas cyanoptera - Cinnamon teal (Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas discors - Blue-winged teal [taken to be synonymous with Anas erythrorhyncha in this reference] (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas falcata - Falcated duck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas formosa - Baikal teal (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas georgica - Yellow-billed pintail (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas poecilorhyncha - Spot-billed duck (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas punctata - Hottentot teal (Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas querquedula - Garganey (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas rhynchotis - Australian shoveler (Echinostoma revolutum), Anas rubripes - American black duck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas specularis - Spectacled duck (Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas strepera - Gadwall (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Anas superciliosa - Pacific black duck (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Anas versicolor - Silver teal (Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus) Somateria mollissima - Common eider (Apatemon gracilis, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Somateria spectabilis - King eider (Notocotylus attenuatus), Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup (Apatemon gracilis, Zygocotyle lunata), Aythya americana - Redhead (Echinostoma revolutum, Zygocotyle lunata), Aythya baeri - Baer's pochard (Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aythya ferina - Common pochard (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aythya fuligula - Tufted duck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aythya marila - Greater scaup (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Aythya nyroca - Ferruginous pochard (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aythya valisineria - Canvasback (Zygocotyle lunata), Netta rufina - Red-crested pochard (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aix galericulata - Mandarin duck (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Aix sponsa - Wood duck (Notocotylus attenuatus), Amazonetta brasiliensis - Brazilian teal (Echinostoma revolutum, Zygocotyle lunata), Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye (Apatemon gracilis), Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus, Zygocotyle lunata), Nettapus pulchellus - Green pygmy-goose (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Plectropterus gambensis - Spur-winged goose (Hypoderaeum conoideum), Sarkidornis melanotos - Comb duck (Zygocotyle lunata), Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Bucephala islandica - Barrow's goldeneye (Notocotylus attenuatus), Clangula hyemalis - Long-tailed duck (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Histrionicus histrionicus - Harlequin duck (Apatemon gracilis, Notocotylus attenuatus), Melanitta fusca - White-winged scoter (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Melanitta nigra - Black scoter (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Mergus albellus - Smew (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Mergus cucullatus - Hooded merganser (Apatemon gracilis), Mergus merganser - Common merganser (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Mergus serrator - Red-breasted merganser (Apatemon gracilis, Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus), Mergus squamatus - Scaly-sided merganser (Apatemon gracilis), Biziura lobata - Musk duck (Echinostoma revolutum), Oxyura jamaicensis - Ruddy duck (Echinostoma revolutum), Oxyura leucocephala - White-headed duck (Echinostoma revolutum, Notocotylus attenuatus). (B91)

WATERFOWL Host Species List

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Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:
Disease reported in:
  • Mute swan Cygnus olor (J35.111.w1).
  • Mute swan Cygnus olor in Scotland (J7.50.w1).
  • Free-flying dabbling ducks, mainly with Echinostomum revolutum (J14.19.w1).

Infection also recorded in:

  • Black-bellied whistling-ducks Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.w5).
  • Wild cinnamon teal Anas cyanoptera in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w6)
  • Wild northern shoveler Anas clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Wild mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca and blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma, USA (J1.16.w8).
  • Wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).
  • Wild Mexican ducks Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Canada goose Branta canadensis, snow geese Anser caerulescens and white-fronted geese Anser albifrons wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4).

WATERFOWL Host Species List

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Environment/Geography
General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality
Associated with habitats suitable for the intermediate host freshwater snails (J5.20.w2).

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

  • Echinoparyphium recurvatum and Echinostomum spp. in the UK (J7.4.w1, J7.5.w1, J7.50.w1, J35.111.w1).
  • Echinostomum revolutum in USA and Canada (J5.20.w2, J14.19.w1).
  • Notocotylus attenatus occurs in North America; related species Notocotylus thienemanni occurs in Europe (J5.20.w2, B24).

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

  • Echinostomum revolutum in Canada (J14.19.w1).
  • Echinoparyphium recurvatum in the UK (J7.50.w1, J35.111.w1).

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General Investigation / Diagnosis

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
WATERFOWL Identification of trematodes associated with clinical signs and intestinal lesions (J35.111.w1, B24); infection (but not necessarily disease) may be diagnosed by the identification of trematode eggs in the excreta (B24).
Related Techniques
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Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)
WATERFOWL --

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Treatment and Control

Specific Medical Treatment
WATERFOWL
  • Treatment of trematode infections is difficult.
  • Benzemidazole anthelmintics and praziquantel 10mg/kg oral, intramuscular or subcutaneous, daily for 14 days may be useful (B11.39.w7, B24).
  • Tetramisole, oral, 25-50mg/kg body weight may be partially effective (B16.19.w1).
  • Chlorsulan 20mg/kg orally three times a week, repeated at two-week intervals (B11.39.w7).
Related Techniques
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General Nursing and Surgical Techniques
WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques

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Preventative Measures
Vaccination WATERFOWL --
Prophylactic Treatment

WATERFOWL

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Related Techniques

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Environmental and Population  Control Measures
General Environment Changes, Cleaning and Disinfection

WATERFOWL
  • Control intermediate hosts: drain swampy areas to remove freshwater-snail habitat, or use of molluscicides to remove snails (J5.20.w2, B24).
  • In most captive situations, the intermediate hosts of trematodes are likely to be 'eaten out' by the waterfowl, thereby removing the problem; hosts may however be re-introduced, for example with fresh waterweed (B10.26.w11, B18).
Population Control Measures WATERFOWL Prevent access to intermediate hosts: keep waterfowl from areas likely to contain intermediate hosts (J5.20.w2, B24).
Isolation, Quarantine and Screening WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques
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