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| Diseases / List of Parasitic Diseases / Disease description: |
| Acanthocephala Infection in Waterfowl |
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General and References
Disease Summary |
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| WATERFOWL | Infection with acanthocephalans (thorny-headed worms) which may result in enteritis and emaciation, sometimes peritonitis. |
Alternative Names (Synonyms) |
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Disease Type |
| Parasitic - Thorny-headed Worms |
Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease |
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| Acanthocephalans (thorny-headed worms) including Filicollis anatis, Polymorphus altmani, Polymorphus obtusus, Polymorphus botulus, Polymorphus minutus. Worms attach to intestinal wall with retractile proboscis. | |
Infective "Taxa" |
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Non-infective agents |
-- |
Physical agents |
-- Indirect / Secondary |
Disease Author |
Debra Bourne |
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Major References / Reviews |
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Code and Title List |
B9.6.w1, B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B14, B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1 J7.50.w1 J36.41.w1, J36.44.w1 V.w3, V.w11 |
Other References |
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Code and Title List |
J1.11.w5, J1.13.w6, J1.13.w7, J1.16.w8, J1.17.w6, J1.22.w4 J14.11.w1 |
Clinical Characteristics and Pathology
Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics |
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General |
WATERFOWL | Non-specific signs of lethargy and emaciation associated with loss of nutrients to parasites and damage to intestinal wall. |
Clinical
Characteristics |
WATERFOWL | Non-specific signs: lethargy, rapid weight loss, anaemia and emaciation, stunting, death (J36.44.w1, B11.39.w7, B9.6.w1, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). |
Incubation |
WATERFOWL | Generally considered to be a chronic disease (B15), but lethal infections have occurred in ducklings at just a few days old (V.w3, V.w11). |
Mortality / Morbidity |
WATERFOWL | Sometimes epizootics; may cause high mortality (B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). |
Pathology |
WATERFOWL | Gastro-intestinal tract - Enteritis, sometimes haemorrhagic. White nodules visible on serosal surface of intestine, each containing proboscis of an acanthocephalan. Mucosal surface, intense inflammation around embedded proboscis of acanthocephalans (white-to-bright yellow/orange parasites, 0.5-1cm long), which are firmly attached to the intestinal wall. Severe granulomatous haemorrhagic enteritis with heavy infections. Parasites may penetrate gut wall and cause adhesions between loops of intestine and/or peritonitis (J7.50.w1, J36.44.w1, B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B14, B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). |
Human Health Considerations |
| None (B37.x.w1). |
Susceptibility / Transmission
General information on Susceptibility / Transmission |
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| WATERFOWL |
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Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in: |
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Disease has
been reported in:
Infection has also been reported in:
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WATERFOWL Host Species List |
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Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of: |
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Disease
has been reported in:
Infection has also been reported in:
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WATERFOWL Host Species List |
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Environment/Geography
| General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality |
| Epizootics are usually associated with stresses such as food shortage, stress of migration or breeding (particularly female eiders while or just after brooding, versus in males and immatures in late winter/early spring). May be common in certain localized geographical areas (B14, B15, B36.33.w33). |
Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded |
| Worldwide (B36.33.w33). |
Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations |
| -- |
General Investigation / Diagnosis
General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis |
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| WATERFOWL | Fecal examination can show
presence of infection (spindle-shaped eggs, containing embryo with rostral circlet of
hooks). Post mortem examination is necessary to show acanthocephalan infection
(cylindrical, non-segmented, often bright yellow/orange) as the cause of death or a
contributory factor, based on the number of parasites present (more than 100 P. botulus
may be considered a heavy infection; numbers may reach 1-2000) and degree of intestinal
damage associated (B11.39.w7,
B12.55.w1, B14, B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). N.B. Inspection of Gammarus spp. (intermediate hosts) may reveal the presence of the larval parasites - e.g. orange Polymorphus minutus, which is visible within the gammarids to the naked eye (V.w3). |
| Related Techniques | |
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Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis) |
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| WATERFOWL | Gizzard worm infection
(Gizzard Worm Infection), echinuariasis
(Echinuriasis (Acuariasis)) (B37.x.w1).
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Treatment and Control
Specific Medical Treatment |
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| WATERFOWL | Treatment is impractical in wild birds. In captive birds, use of anthelmintics: ivermectin (single dose 200µg/kg body weight oral or subcutaneous), benzimidazoles such as fenbendazole (single oral dose 20mg/kg), levamisole (25-50mg/kg oral or subcutaneous single dose) may be useful (B11.39.w7, B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). |
| Related Techniques |
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General Nursing and Surgical Techniques |
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| WATERFOWL | -- |
| Related Techniques | -- |
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Preventative Measures |
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| Vaccination | WATERFOWL | -- |
| Prophylactic Treatment | WATERFOWL |
For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures |
| Related Techniques |
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Environmental and Population Control Measures |
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| General Environment Changes, Cleaning and Disinfection | WATERFOWL |
Impractical for wild birds. Manage waterfowl to avoid waterfowl using water areas with large numbers of the crustaceans which act as intermediate hosts for acanthocephalans, particularly freshwater shrimp Gammarus spp, or drain infected waters (B11.39.w7, B15, B36.33.w33, B37.x.w1). |
| Population Control Measures | WATERFOWL | Keep young birds on water areas not used by other birds and therefore less likely to have large numbers of infected intermediate hosts (B15, B36.33.w33). |
| Isolation, Quarantine and Screening | WATERFOWL | -- |
| Related Techniques |
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