Tularemia in Lagomorphs with notes on Hedgehogs and Bears

Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Plaguelike disease of rodents
• Plaguelike lymphadenitis
• Conjunctivitis tularensis
• Francis's disease
• Deerfly fever
• Rabbit fever
• Rabbit disease
• Cattle-fly fever
• Pahvant Valley fever
• Pahvant Valley plague
• Glandular type tick fever
• Yato-byo
• Ohara's disease
• La Tularemie
• die Tularemie

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

• A gram-negative, aerobic, non-motile, coccobacillary bacterium. (B614.8.w8)
• This organism is widely distributed in nature; it has been isolated from over one hundred species of wildlife including birds, mammals and biting insects. (B614.8.w8)
• There are two major biovars:
  • Type A strains Francisella tularensis tularensis:
    • highly virulent to humans as well as wildlife
    • was thought to be only found in North America, but has been found in arthropods in Europe.
    • lagomorphs (rabbits and hares) are the principle wildlife vectors.
  • Type B strains 
    • less virulent to humans than the tularensis biovar, but cause high mortality in wildlife
    • Francisella tularensis holarctica (Francisella tularensis palaearctica): found in the Americas and Eurasia (Nearctic and Palearctic) in hares and rodents;
    • Francisella tularensis mediaasiatica: in rodents and hares in Central Asia
    • Francisella tularensis novicida in North America and Australia. Closely linked to waterborne transmission, principle wildlife hosts unknown.
  (B527, B614.8.w8)
  • For further discussion of different biovars, see B527 - Tularemia - full text included.

Synonyms

• Bacterium tularense (B614.8.w8)
• Pasteurella tularensis

History

• 1818 in Japan, 1890 or earlier in Norway, possibly as early as 1653, disease in humans now considered to be probably tularemia.
• 1911 - Tularemia was described as a plaque-like disease that occurred in ground squirrels (Citellus beecheyi) in California.
• 1912 - The organism was isolated and named after Tulare County in California: Bacterium tularense.
• 1914 - The first human cases of tularemia in North America supported by laboratory diagnosis were reported (retrospectively, cases in North America as early as 1904). 
• Mid 1920s - Dr Edward Francis recognised the importance of the association of the human cases of tularemia with the exposure to rabbits. He also studied the aetiology and pathogenesis of the disease.
  • The aetiologic agent was subsequently renamed Francisella in his honour. 
• 1930s - 1940s - average more than 1,000 cases per year in the USA.
• World War II -  thousands of cases in Soviet and German soldiers on the Eastern European front.
• 1950s to present -  declining numbers of cases in the USA, human outbreaks e.g. in Spain (1997), Kosovo (1999 - 20000) and southern Sweden (2000).

  (B527, B614.8.w8)

A variety of invertebrates, particularly Ixodidae - Hard ticks (Family) are important both as vectors and in maintenance of the disease in the environment. Various mosquitoes and other biting flies may be important vectors in localised areas. (B527)

• Bloodsucking arthropods including mites, ticks, flies, midges, mosquitoes, fleas and lice. (B58.18.w18)

Infective "Taxa"

• Francisella tularensis (Gracilicutes (Gram negative staining cell-walls))

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Referees

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

In Hedgehogs
B228.9.w9

In Lagomorphs
B614.8.w8
J1.11.w14, J1.13.w18, J1.24.w14, J1.26.w15, J40.57.w1, J64.11.w9

Other References

Code and Title List

In Lagomorphs
J497.20.w1

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

Clinical Characteristics

• Sudden death is the most frequent presentation of tularaemia in affected animals; however, depression, anorexia, and ataxia may be seen. (B614.8.w8)
• Depression and fever; sometimes also local inflammation or ulceration a the site of entry of the organism, and enlarged local/regional lymph nodes. (B209.18.w18)
• In humans, usually the ulceroglandular form is seen, with one, less commonly several ulcerated skin lesions, and enlarged lymph nodes. Other syndromes affect the eyes, oropharynx or lungs; systemic disease also occurs. (B527)
• In highly susceptible species, often only mild apathy is noted before death. (B209.18.w18)
• In sheep, laboured breathing, lagging behind the flock, diarrhoea, rigid gait, frequent urination. (B527)
• In cats, depression and enlarged lymph nodes. (B527)

• Illness associated with infection in hedgehogs has been reported. (B228.9.w9) "septicaemia with an enlarged spleen and multiple necrotic foci in the spleen and liver". (B228.9.w9)

• Depression (B209.18.w18, B527, B614.8.w8)
• Wild lagomorphs may become tame or easy to catch. (B58.18.w18, B527)
• "Tularemic hares and cottontails have been observed to behave oddly, to run slowly, and to be captured easily." (B58.18.w18)
• Exhaustion. (B527)
• Stupor. (B527)
• Rubbing the nose and forefeet into the ground. (B58.18.w18, , B527)
• Failing to raise the head properly or carry the forefeet properly. (B58.18.w18, B527)
• Anorexia (B614.8.w8)
• Ataxia/staggering (B58.18.w18, B527, B614.8.w8)
• Recurrent tonic spasms. (B58.18.w18, B527)
• Fever. (B209.18.w18)
• In Lepus timidus - Mountain hare and Lepus europaeus - Brown hare experimentally infected with Francisella tularensis biovar palaearctica, mild depression was noted for several days, but no other signs occurred and infection was not fatal. (J1.24.w14)
• In Lepus europaeus - Brown hare, a brief period of severe apathy may be seen before death. (J1.39.w8)

Asymptomatic infection of Francisella tularensis is thought to occur frequently because there is a high prevalence of antibody in wild rabbits and also this organism is occasionally isolated from apparently healthy animals. (B614.8.w8)

Incubation

• Death in 2 - 10 days. (B209.18.w18, B527)
• Following experimental inoculation of Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic rabbit, generalised infection and clinical signs at 8 - 30 hours post inoculation, death after 103 - 145 hours. (B58.18.w18)
• Tularemia may cause high mortality in Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail. (J1.26.w15)

Mortality / Morbidity

• In humans, 5 - 15% mortality prior to the use of antibiotics in cases in North America; more recently less than 2%. However, if untreated there can be systemic infection with high mortality. In other regions, with biovars of lower pathogenicity to humans, mortality usually under 1%. (B527)

• Can cause high mortality. (B209.18.w18)
• Reported to cause up to 80 - 90% mortality in Lepus capensis - Cape hare in some areas. (B527)
• May cause 3% of annual mortality of Lepus europaeus - Brown hare.(B527)

Pathology

• "Inflammation and necrosis in lymph nodes and scattered foci of coagulation necrosis in lever, spleen, bone marrow, and lungs." (B209.18.w18)

Gross

Acute disease in sensitive species

• Abdominal cavity: sometimes fibrin strands.
• Pulmonary: usually congestion and oedema.
• Hepatic: pale necrotic foci.
• Splenic: enlarged spleen with pale necrotic foci.
• Lymph nodes: caseous necrotic foci.
• Bone marrow: pale necrotic foci.
• Blood vessels: congestion, thrombosis.

(B209.18.w18)

Chronic disease

• Poor body condition.
• Granulomatous lesions in the lungs, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, kidneys.

(B209.18.w18)

Histopathology

Acute disease in sensitive species

• Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, lungs, bone marrow: multifocal coagulative necrosis. (B209.18.w18)

Chronic disease

• Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, lungs, kidneys: granulomatous lesiosn. Central necrosis with surrounding vacuolated macrophages, giant cells and epitheliod cells. (B209.18.w18)

In Lepus timidus - Mountain hare:

• Liver, spleen and bone marrow: focal coagulative necrosis and congestion. (B614.8.w8, J1.24.w14, J64.11.w9)
• Gastrointestinal tract: haemorrhagic enteritis and typhlitis, particularly in hares with tularemia in the winter months. (J1.24.w14)

In Lepus europaeus - Brown hare with more chronic disease. (P18.6.w1)

• Kidneys and lungs: granulomatous lesions. (P18.6.w1)

Human Health Considerations

• Infection with Francisella tularensis results in an acute febrile disease. A skin ulcer may be seen as the primary lesion, followed by inflammation of regional lymph nodes - this is called the ulceroglandular form of the disease. Fever and weakness are common clinical signs and in severe cases the disease may progress to septicaemia and pneumonia. Ulcerative conjunctivitis has also been reported. (B614.8.w8)

Incidence of tularemia in humans

• The incidence of this disease in the USA peaked in 1941 with 2291 cases but declined to around 10% of that level in the early 1990s. (B614.8.w8)

Species involved in transmitting the disease to humans

Of the species which harbour Francisella tularensis, about half have reportedly transmitted tularemia to humans; rabbits and hares are the most frequently incriminated species. (B614.8.w8)

• Rabbits:
  • Up to 90% of cases of tularemia in humans have been linked to exposure to lagomorphs; rabbits of the Sylvilagus genus are reported to present the greatest risk in North America. (B614.8.w8)
  • N.B. "There have been no reported cases of tularemia acquired from Oryctolagus cuniculus". (B614.8.w8)
  • In North America, more human cases are associated with tick-borne tulareaemia of rabbits than with water-borne tularaemia of rodents. (J64.11.w9)
• Arthropods may also transmit the infection to humans. (B614.8.w8)
• In Central Europe and Western Europe, human cases are commonly associated with direct contact with dead or sick hares. (J64.11.w9)
• In Sweden, human cases usually are associated with transmission by mosquitoes. (J64.11.w9)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

Occurrence in Hedgehogs

• Infection reported in Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog. (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• Infection reported in hedgehogs. (B16.13.w13)
• Experimental infection reported. (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• Hedgehogs are a natural host in the CIS. (B228.9.w9)
• Serological evidence of recent infection has been recorded in a hedgehog in Iran. (B228.9.w9)

Occurrence in Bears

• Antibodies to tularaemia (Francisella tularensis) were detected by tube agglutination test in 65/340 sera (19%) from 265 Ursus americanus - American black bear from northcentral Idaho, 1971-1975. (J1.16.w12)
• Antibodies to tularaemia were detected by a commercial slide agglutination test in 101/568 (18%) Ursus arctos - Brown bear and 21/76 (28%) Ursus americanus - American black bear in Alaska (samples collected1988-1991). (J64.17.w1)

Occurrence in Lagomorphs

• Infection confirmed in Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, Lepus brachyurus - Japanese hare, Lepus europaeus - Brown hare, Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare, Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit, Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit, Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail,  Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail, Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit and Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit. (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• In North America, the main hosts are Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare (in northern areas), Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit and Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail. It is also commonly found in Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit, other Sylvilagus spp. (Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail, Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit, Sylvilagus nuttallii - Mountain cottontail) and Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit. (B527)
• In Eurasia, Lepus europaeus - Brown hare, Lepus capensis - Cape hare, Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, and Lepus brachyurus - Japanese hare are important hosts. (B527)
• Confirmed in Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit in Florida (infection in a human following killing, cleaning and eating a rabbit of this species). (J1.11.w14)
• In a survey in Fennoscandia, agglutinating antibodies were detected in 2/26 wild Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit from Sweden. (J1.13.w18)
• A study in Sweden found that 7 % (109/1,500) of the wild hares submitted for necropsy had died from tularemia; most cases were diagnosed in autumn with few in winter and none in spring. All cases were in Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, none in Lepus europaeus - Brown hare. Francisella was isolated from 8/26 individuals which had died from tularemia and which were subjected to bacteriological examination. (J1.24.w14)
• In southern Illinois, antibodies to Francisella tularensis were detected by the rapid slide agglutination test in 6% of 118 sera from Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail and in 16% by ELISA. (J1.26.w15) 
• In a study of a semi-isolated population of Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail in southern Illinois, an epidemic of tularemia occurred in 1980. During the period 1982-early 1988, antibodies were detected in the population. Deaths from tularemia then occurred from spring 1988 to winter 1990, with 32.4% of 37 radiomarked rabbits dying from tularemia over this time. Prevalence of IgM antibodies rose over this time. It appeared that this disease regulated population density in this population. (J40.57.w1)
• Isolated from Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit in Austria and Tunisia (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• Experimental inoculation of Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic rabbit produced generalised infection and clinical signs at 8 - 30 hours post inoculation, death after 103 - 145 hours. (B58.18.w18)
• During a study of Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare in east-central Alaska, Francisella tularensis "was isolated incidentally from five of the hares or their ticks." (J497.20.w1)
• In Sweden, recurring epidemics have occurred in varying hares (Lepus timidus - Mountain hare), mainly in the northern and central areas, but more recently also further south. A large outbreak with high hare mortality occurred in 2000. Additionally, from the late 1990s the disease was also found in Lepus europaeus - Brown hare. (P18.6.w1)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Hedgehogs:
  • Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Bears:
  • Ursus arctos - Brown bear
  • Ursus americanus - American black bear
• Lagomorphs: 
  • Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit
  • Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare
  • Lepus brachyurus - Japanese hare
  • Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit
  • Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare
  • Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit
  • Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic rabbit
  • Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail
  • Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit
  • Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail rabbit
  • Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

Occurrence in Hedgehogs

• Infection reported in Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog. (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• Hedgehogs are a natural host in the CIS. (B228.9.w9)

Occurrence in Bears

• Antibodies to tularaemia (Francisella tularensis) were detected by tube agglutination test in 65/340 sera (19%) from 265 Ursus americanus - American black bear from northcentral Idaho, 1971-1975. (J1.16.w12)
• Antibodies to tularaemia were detected by a commercial slide agglutination test in 101/568 (18%) Ursus arctos - Brown bear and 21/76 (28%) Ursus americanus - American black bear in Alaska (samples collected1988-1991). (J64.17.w1)

Occurrence in Lagomorphs

• Infection confirmed in Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, Lepus brachyurus - Japanese hare, Lepus europaeus - Brown hare, Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare, Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit, Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit, Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail,  Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail, Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit and Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit. (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• In North America, the main hosts are Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare (in northern areas), Lepus californicus - Black-tailed jackrabbit and Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail. It is also commonly found in Lepus townsendii - White-tailed jackrabbit, other Sylvilagus spp. (Sylvilagus audubonii - Desert cottontail, Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit, Sylvilagus nuttallii - Mountain cottontail) and Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy rabbit. (B527)
• In Eurasia, Lepus europaeus - Brown hare, Lepus capensis - Cape hare, Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, and Lepus brachyurus - Japanese hare are important hosts. (B527)
• Isolated from Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit in Austria and Tunisia (B58.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
• In southern Illinois, antibodies to Francisella tularensis were detected by the rapid slide agglutination test in 6% of 118 sera from Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail and in 16% by ELISA. (J1.26.w15)
• In a study of a semi-isolated population of Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail in southern Illinois, an epidemic of tularemia occurred in 1980. During the period 1982-early 1988, antibodies were detected in the population. Deaths from tularemia then occurred from spring 1988 to winter 1990, with 32.4% of 37 radiomarked rabbits dying from tularemia over this time. Prevalence of IgM antibodies rose over this time. It appeared that this disease regulated population density in this population. (J40.57.w1)
• Confirmed in Sylvilagus palustris - Marsh rabbit in Florida (infection in a human following killing, cleaning and eating a rabbit of this species). (J1.11.w14)
• In a survey in Fennoscandia, agglutinating antibodies were detected in 2/26 wild Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit from Sweden. (J1.13.w18)
• A study in Sweden found that 7% (109/1,500) of the wild hares submitted for necropsy had died from tularemia; most cases were diagnosed in autumn with few in winter and none in spring. All cases were in Lepus timidus - Mountain hare, none in Lepus europaeus - Brown hare. Francisella was isolated from 8/26 individuals which had died from tularemia and which were subjected to bacteriological examination. (J1.24.w14)
• During a study of Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare in east-central Alaska, Francisella tularensis "was isolated incidentally from five of the hares or their ticks." (J497.20.w1)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Hedgehogs:
  • Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Bears:
  • Ursus arctos - Brown bear
  • Ursus americanus - American black bear
• Lagomorphs: 
  • Lepus americanus - Snowshoe hare
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare
  • Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern Cottontail rabbit

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this disease)

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• In Lepus timidus - Mountain hare in Europe, large epidemics in occur mainly in late summer to early autumn. (B209.18.w18)
  • A study of tularemia in Lepus timidus - Mountain hare in Sweden found that most cases were diagnosed in autumn with few in winter and none in spring.  (J1.24.w14)
• In a study of a semi-isolated population of Sylvilagus floridanus - Eastern cottontail in southern Illinois1982 - 1988 deaths from tularemia occurred from spring 1988 to winter 1990. (J40.57.w1)
• Seasonality of infection in humans varies, e.g. in summer from tick bites, in winter among fur trappers. (B209.18.w18)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

• Type A strains Francisella tularensis tularensis:
  • highly virulent to humans as well as wildlife
  • was thought to be only found in North America, but has been found in arthropods in Europe.
  • lagomorphs (rabbits and hares) are the principle wildlife vectors.
• Type B strains 
  • less virulent to humans than the tularensis biovar, but cause high mortality in wildlife
  • Francisella tularensis holarctica (Francisella tularensis palaearctica): found in the Americas and Eurasia (Nearctic and Palearctic) in hares and rodents;
  • Francisella tularensis mediaasiatica: in rodents and hares in Central Asia
  • Francisella tularensis novicida in North America and Australia. Closely linked to waterborne transmission, principle wildlife hosts unknown.

In Europe, tularaemia is widespread but appears not to be found in the UK, Ireland, Spain and Portugal. (B209.18.w18)

• For further discussion of different biovars in different geographical areas, see B527 - Tularemia - full text included.

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

• Type A strains Francisella tularensis tularensis:
  • highly virulent to humans as well as wildlife
  • was thought to be only found in North America, but has been found in arthropods in Europe.
  • lagomorphs (rabbits and hares) are the principle wildlife vectors.
• Type B strains 
  • less virulent to humans than the tularensis biovar, but cause high mortality in wildlife
  • Francisella tularensis holarctica (Francisella tularensis palaearctica): found in the Americas and Eurasia (Nearctic and Palearctic) in hares and rodents;
  • Francisella tularensis mediaasiatica: in rodents and hares in Central Asia
  • Francisella tularensis novicida in North America and Australia. Closely linked to waterborne transmission, principle wildlife hosts unknown.

• For further discussion of different biovars in different geographical areas, see B527 - Tularemia - full text included.

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Necropsy: the typical lesions seen at necropsy are suggestive of tularemia. However, identification or isolation of the organism is necessary for definitive diagnosis. (B209.18.w18, B614.8.w8, J64.11.w9)
• Impression smears of liver, spleen, kidney, lung or bone marrow, or tissue sections: Gram-negative bacteria, very small, usually in large numbers. (B209.18.w18)
  • Indirect or direct fluorescent antibody techniques for confirmation. (B209.18.w18)
• Identification / isolation of the organism
  • Fluorescent antibody techniques can be used to identify the organism in fixed tissue. (B209.18.w18, B614.8.w8)
  • Culture: blood enriched cysteine heart agar or glucose-cysteine agar can be used to culture Francisella tularensis by inoculating the agar plates directly with necropsy or clinical specimens and incubating them aerobically for 48 to 96 hours at 37 °C. NB. standard laboratory media are not suitable for growth of this organism. (B209.18.w18, B614.8.w8)
• Serological screening may be used including:
  • Tube agglutination test
  • Rapid slide test for agglutination antibodies;
  • ELISA. 
  (B209.18.w18, B614.8.w8)

• Environmental Assessment
• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Imaging in Lagomorph Diagnosis and Treatment
• Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Pseudotuberculosis
• Mycobacterial infection
• Staphylococcus infection
• Salmonellosis
• Tyzzer's disese
• Systemic herpesvirus infections
• Parasites encysting in the liver. 

(B209.18.w18)

• --

Specific Medical Treatment

Antibiotics

• Streptomycin is the drug of choice. (B58.18.w18, B209.18.w18, B282.18.w18)
  • Some strains are resistant. (B282.18.w18)
• Gentamicin is an alternative. (B209.18.w18)
• Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol are less effective; these are bacteriostatic, not bacteriocidal, therefore when treatment is stopped, recrudescence of the disease may occur. (B209.18.w18, B282.18.w18)

• Streptomycin or another aminoglycoside should be effective. (B614.8.w8)
  • NB. tetracycline can be used but when therapy is stopped recrudescence of the disease may occur. (B614.8.w8)

• Treatment and Care

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Treatment and Care

Preventative Measures

• Treatment and Care

Environmental and Population Control Measures

• Minimise contact with biting insects and animal carcases. (B282.18.w18, B614.8.w8)
• Meat from wild-caught lagomorphs in infected areas should be thoroughly cooked. (B614.8.w8)

Lagomorphs

• --

• Control of this disease in wild animal populations has apparently not been attempted. (B614.8.w8)

• Translocation of wild lagomorphs from endemic areas should be avoided or carried out with care. (B209.18.w18)

• Environmental and Population Management - General