Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Weil's disease
• Mud fever
• Rice paddy disease
• Autumn fever
• Seven-day fever
• Swineherder's disease
• Blackwater fever
• Canicola fever
• Fort Bragg fever
• (B58.30.w30)

In dogs:

• Canine typhus
• Stuttgart disease
• Infectious jaundice
• (B101)

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

• Leptospira organisms; a variety of antigenically distinct serovars (B58.30.w30, B101).
• Leptospira interrogans (B209.28.w28).
  • In lagomorphs: antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar grippotyphosa have been reported in Lepus europaeus - Brown hare. (B614.8.w8)
• In dogs mainly Leptospira canicola and Leptospira copenhageni serovars. (B101)
• Leptospira ballum serovar: one of the maintenance hosts in New Zealand is the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog)

Infective "Taxa"

• Leptospira spp. (Monera - Bacteria (Kingdom))

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

Hedgehogs:

J9.180.w1, J18.38.w1

Elephants:

J12.75.w1
P502.1.w1

Bears:
B16.9.w9, B407.w18, B419.14.w14
J1.29.w12
P1.1975.w1

Lagomorphs:
B614.8.w8, P17.24.w2, P23.1999S.w5

Other References

Code and Title List

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

• Inapparent to severe disease; signs may include fever, jaundice (icterus), haemoglobinuria, abortion, death. (B58.30.w30, B101, B209.28.w28).
• Usually inapparent infection in wild mammals (B209.28.w28).

Clinical Characteristics

In dogs:

Severe infection:-

• Sudden onset, slight weakness, anorexia, vomiting, temperature 103-105°F/39.5-40.5°C, + mild conjunctivitis
• Progressing to sharp drop in temperature, pronounced depression, laboured respiration, marked thirst.
• Jaundice (icterus) may be first sign noticed.
• May be: lumbar pain, oral lesions, difficulty in swallowing, tenacious saliva, sometimes bloodstained.
• Advanced disease: profound depression, muscular tremors, temperature as low as 97 °F/36 °C, + bloody vomit/faeces
• Frequent urination if acute nephritis is present
• Sunken eyes, injected conjunctiva, thready pulse, may be uraemia.

With Leptospira canicola there is often subsequent chronic progressive nephritis.

• Fever, jaundice

(B101)

In rats:

• Inapparent infection, mainly Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae.
• Prolonged (lifelong) shedding of the organism in urine
• Organism can cause disease in e.g. humans, dogs

• General signs: 
  • Usually no clinical signs. (J18.38.w1)
  • Weight loss may be seen occasionally. (J18.38.w1)

Following experimental inoculation with Leptospira pomona:

• General: Fever, peaking repeatedly, with sub-normal temperature between peaks.(J9.180.w1)
• Hepatic: Jaundice. (J9.180.w1)
• Reproductive: abortion may occur. (J9.180.w1)
• Clinical pathology: 
  • Urine: May contain Leptospira organisms. (J9.180.w1)
  • Develop high agglutination-lysis titres. (J9.180.w1)

• In a five-month-old Ursus maritimus - Polar bear cub, periods of shaking, and diarrhoea and prostration (P1.1975.w1)
  • Body temperature was normal. (P1.1975.w1)
  • Packed cell volume, SGPT (ALT) and BUN were within normal limits. (P1.1975.w1)

Incubation

• Four to 10 days in cattle. (B47)

• Excretion of leptospires in urine by 16-18 days after experimental infection with Leptospira pomona. (J9.180.w1)

Mortality / Morbidity

• Abortion and neonatal mortality are important following infection in cattle. (B47)
• Mortality in dogs may be high with the acute haemorrhagic form of the disease. (B47)

• "Almost invariably" fatal infection following experimental infection of juveniles (up to half grown) with Leptospira pomona. (J9.180.w1)
• Death in adults rare ("usually survive") following experimental infection with Leptospira pomona. (J9.180.w1)

Pathology

• Haemorrhages (any organ).
• Liver - swollen in acute disease, white/grey streaks/foci in chronic disease.
• Kidneys: swollen  in acute disease, white/grey streaks/foci in chronic disease.
• Lesions of acute uraemia in acute disease.

  (B283)

Histopathology in dogs:

• Acute: Acute interstitial nephritis, possibly hepatitis.(B283)
• Chronic: chronic interstitial nephritis and/or chronic active hepatitis. (B283)

• Spleen: Enlarged. (J18.38.w1)
• Kidneys: Pale, rigid. (J18.38.w1)
• Urine: Green. (J18.38.w1)

Following experimental inoculation with Leptospira pomona:

• Pulmonary: "butterfly lungs". (J9.180.w1)
• Hepatic: degenerative lesions. (J9.180.w1)
• Spleen: degenerative lesions.  (J9.180.w1)
• Kidneys: degenerative lesions.  (J9.180.w1)
• Note: "typical lesions" seen also in two naturally infected wild hedgehogs. (J9.180.w1)

Histopathology:

• No lesions in kidneys despite the presence of leptospires. (J1.12.w7)
• Distribution of leptospires in the kidney: Present in the proximal convoluted tubule, thick loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule but absent from the thin loop of Henle and the collecting duct.  (J1.12.w7)

• Mucous membranes: jaundice. (B16.9.w9)
• Kidney: Petechial haemorrhages on the cortex. (B16.9.w9)
• Spleen: Mild enlargement. (B16.9.w9)
• In a five-month-old Ursus maritimus - Polar bear cub which was found dead nine days after falling into the moat of its enclosure, "liver damage" was noted on necropsy (no histopathological examination was carried out). The other cub in the litter developed illness, later diagnosed as leptospirosis, about six weeks later. (P1.1975.w1)

Human Health Considerations

ZOONOSIS

• Incubation period in humans 2-30 days, but usually 5-14 days.
• Sudden onset severe headache, muscle pains, fever, conjunctival suffusion, skin and palate transient rash, photophobia.
• May be mild to severe illness.
• In first week may be exanthematous rash for 1-2 days, general or localised to trunk or shins.
• Transient remission may be followed by aseptic meningitis and renal failure.
• Severe disease: illness progresses from initial symptoms. Renal failure in 7-10 days. Sometimes skin/muscle haemorrhage, jaundice (appears at 4-9 days), haemoptysis (coughing-up blood), myocarditis, liver failure.
• Fatal if untreated; mortality rate with serovars causing severe disease (e.g. Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Leptospira copenhageni) may be 5-40%.
• Infection during pregnancy may lead to intrauterine infection of the fetus and fetal death.
• Convalescence from meningitis may be prolonged.

(P23.1999S.w5)

• The main serovars of importance for human leptospirosis are Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae (maintained by the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus - Brown rat) and probably also badgers (Meles meles - Eurasian badger)) and possibly also Sejroe group infections, which are probably maintained by wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus - Wood mouse), field voles (Microtus agrestis - Field vole) and bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus - Bank vole). (P23.1999S.w5)

Bears:

• Leptospirosis has been apparently transmitted from an infected polar bear cub to keepers. The clinical signs in the keepers included nausea, vomiting, headache, fever, myalgia, anorexia, chills, sore throat, joint and neck pain and abdominal pain. (P1.1975.w1, B16.9.w9)
  • The keepers had high positive titres to Leptospira ballum, Leptospira copenhagi and Leptospira mankarso (compatible with infection by a member of the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup); while from the urine of one of the men, leptospirae of the icterohaemorrhagica serogroup were cultured. (P1.1975.w1)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

• Dogs.

Infection also reported in:

• The brown rat (Rattus norvegicus - Brown rat); this species has been recognised as a major source of Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae for about 80 years. (P23.1999S.w5)
• Infection with various serovars has been confirmed on the basis of cultural, histological and/or serological evidence in mice (including woodmice (Apodemus sylvaticus - Wood mouse) and field mice), voles (including field voles (Microtus agrestis - Field vole), bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus - Bank vole) and water voles (Arvicola terrestris - European water vole)), shrews (common (Sorex araneus - Eurasian common shrew), pygmy (Sorex minutus - Eurasian pygmy shrew) and water shrew (Neomys fodiens - Eurasian water shrew)), moles (Talpa europaea - European mole), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus - West European hedgehog), foxes (Vulpes vulpes - Red fox), badgers (Meles meles - Eurasian badger), mink (Mustela vison - American mink), grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis - Eastern grey squirrel), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit). (P23.1999S.w5)
• Wild deer in Britain appear to be infected only rarely. (P23.1999S.w5)

Hedgehogs:

• Leptospira bratislava isolated from an a hedgehog caught in Scotland. (J98.1960i.w1)
• Leptospira australis A commonest type found in hedgehogs in Czechoslovakia. (J98.1960i.w1)
• Leptospira bratislava isolated from hedgehogs from Surrey (England), Dyfyd (Wales) and Northern Ireland. (J21.35.w1)
• Australis group Leptospira isolated from one of three wild hedgehogs in England. (J21.22.w3)
• Leptospira bratislava isolated from wild hedgehogs in Denmark. (J1.8.w1)
• Leptospira ballum antibodies detected by microscopic agglutination test in 9/25 wild hedgehogs in New Zealand (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog. (J1.17.w8)
• Leptospira ballum isolated from the kidneys of 5/78 wild health hedgehogs from North Island, New Zealand, where it is a maintenance host for this serovar. (J10.25.w1, J10.29.w1)
• Serotypes isolated from hedgehogs: 
  • Australis group: bratislava in Erinaceus europaeus in Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy, UK, former USSR, in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, in "hedgehog" in Hungary; australis in Erinaceus europaeus in  Israel, in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy and in "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Autumnalis group: erinacei-auriti in Hemiechinus auritus in former USSR and "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Ballum group: ballum in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel and ballum sub-serotype arboreae in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy.
  • Bataviae group: bataviae in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and in "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Canicola group: canicola in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel and in Hemiechinus auritus in Israel. 
  • Grippotyphosa: grippotyphosa in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and in Hemiechinus auritus in Israel. 
  • Hebdomadis: mini in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel (subtype szwajizak), saxkoebing in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy (subtype saxkoebing); sejroe subtype sejroe in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and Czechoslovakia; polonica in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland, sejroe in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark; saxkoebing in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark. 
  • Icterohaemorrhagiae group: icterohaemorrhagiae in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland; icterohaemorrhagiae subtype icterohaemorrhagiae in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy.
  • Javanica group: sorex-jalna in Erinaceus europaeus in the Netherlands, in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and Czechoslovakia and in Hemiechinus auritus in Poland; poi in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in former USSR. 
  • Pomona group: pomona subtype pomona in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Czechoslovakia. 

   (J18.38.w1)

• Positive agglutination-lysis reactions against Leptospira bratislava in 34/96 hedgehogs (14 strains isolated), against Leptospira sejroe in eight individuals (one strain isolated), against Leptospira pomona in two (one strain isolated), against Leptospira sorex-jalna in two individuals (one strain isolated) and against Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae in two individuals. (J141.9.w1) 
• Serological reactions to Leptospira were demonstrated in 14/114 hedgehogs in Morocco (also in 23/31 pigs, 2/13 horses, 0/4 camels, 2/46 gerbils, 5/37 striped mice, 2/40 rats, 0/3 field-mice, 5/16 terrapins and 17/62 tortoises) The main serotypes detected were icetrhaemorrhagiae, Canicola, grippotyphosa, australis, pomona and erinaceus. (J142.54.w1)
• 33 strains of leptospires were isolated from 125 hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus tested in the Netherlands, mainly bratislava but with one sorex jalna. Strains were isolated mainly from adults, only two being isolated from animals with body weight less than 500g. Antibodies to these serotypes were detected in 82% of sera and 42% of urine samples from the hedgehogs, while leptospires were seen under dark-field microscopy in 20 kidneys and seven urine samples. (J143.17.w1)
• From hedgehogs in East Germany for the first time Leptospira bratislava (five strains) and Leptospira poi (three strains) were isolated from hedgehogs. 24% of individuals tested had agglutinating antibodies to various types of leptospires. (additionally 63/280 hares had titres against Leptospira grippotyphosa, with "sporadic" serological reactions against Leptospira pomona and Leptospira grippotyphosa among 131 wild boar, 107 deer and two martens. (J144.25.w1)
• Positive sera using the micro-agglutination test in 3/17 wild Erinaceus europaeus (also in 11% of 85 Cervus elaphus, 5/109 Capreolus capreolus, 5/9 Vulpes vulpes, 0/32 Rattus norvegicus and 0/10 Mus musculus) in North Tyrol. (J119.23.w1)
• Erinaceus europaeus in the Azores Archipelago were found to carry Leptospira interrogans (sensu lato) serovars. (J145.13.w1)
• From Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in the UK: 26/56 seropositive serum samples from Compton, Berkshire, with agglutinins found to five serotypes: bratislava, icterohaemorrhagiae, poi, autumnalis and erinacei. In other individuals, infection was diagnosed in 7/14 animals, including in two by culture, two by dark-field and six by serology. (P17.24.w2)

Elephants:

• A serological study on 109 Elephas maximus - Asian Elephants from 15 different elephant camps in India (in Tamilnadu, Karnataka and the Andaman Nicobar Islands), showed antibodies in 23 serum samples (21%) against Leptospira interrogans, Leptospira pomona, Leptospira icetrhaemorrhagiae, Leptospira gryppotyphosa, Leptospira hebdomadis, Leptospira hardjo and Leptospira canicola by the microscopic agglutination test. No associated clinical disease was reported in any of these animals. (J12.75.w1)
• Antibodies against Leptospira volbuzzi were detected in two apparently healthy Elephas maximus - Asian Elephants in India. (P502.1.w1)

Bears:

• At the Birmingham, Alabama Zoo, USA, an Ursus maritimus - Polar bear cub was seropositive to Leptospira copenhageni while a male Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus - Asiatic black bear) cub was seropositive to Leptospira copenhageni and Leptospira mankarso and a female Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus - Asiatic black bear) cub was seropositive to Leptospira copenhageni, Leptospira autumnalis and Leptospira mankarso (compatible with infection with a member of the Icterohaemorrhagiae subgroup). (P1.1975.w1)
• Antibodies to leptospirosis (tested by rapid plate agglutination test using 10 serotypes) were detected in 2/196 sera (1%) from Ursus americanus - American black bear from northcentral Idaho, 1971-1975. (J1.16.w12)
• Antibodies to Leptospira spp. were detected by microscopic agglutination test in sera from  6/122 (5%) grizzly bears (Ursus arctos - Brown bear) and 1/28 (4%) Ursus americanus - American black bear from southcentral Alaska, 1978-1981. (J1.19.w9)
• A seroprevalence of 40% for Leptospira interrogans was reported in Croatia from 42 free-ranging Ursus arctos - Brown bears. (J1.29.w12) 
• Antibodies to Leptospira interrogans (pool of serovars australis, hyos, and mini georgia) were detected by plate agglutination test in 16% of 129 sera from Ursus americanus - American black bear from California, USA. [1982](J4.181.w4)
• A survey of Ursus americanus - American black bears in Florida, 1980-1987, detected antibodies to Leptospira interrogans in a three-year-old male from Columbia/Baker counties (1:50 titre against serovar icterohaemorrhagiae). (B419.14.w14)

Lagomorphs:

• Infection has been confirmed in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit). (P23.1999S.w5)
  • However there have been no reports of infection in domestic rabbits. (B614.8.w8)
• In the UK, 10/24 male Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbits from Skokholm Island, Pembrokeshire were infected (detected histologically, i.e. leptospires in kidney tubules, four of which were also seropositive  -three to Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae and one to Leptospira bataviae. Additionally, 9/33 females were histologically positive, of which two were seropositive to Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae. All 16 rabbits from a site in Buckinghamshire were negative. Out of 225 Lepus europaeus - Brown hares from the Berkshire Downs, 42 were seropositive, most commonly to Leptospira bataviae (25) and Leptospira canicola (21), but also to Leptospira pomona (9), Leptospira  bratislava (4) and Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae (2). From Balsham, Suffolk, 20/61 were found to be infected, with two having kidney tubule colonies while 18 others were seropositive. From Bartlaw, Norfolk, 9/26 females and 0/7 males were seropositive. Serotypes to which antibodies were found in these two locations included Leptospira canicola (25), Leptospira bataviae (16), Leptospira grippotyphosa (3), Leptospira poi (1) and Leptospira saxkoebing (1). A female hare from Egham, Surrey had titres of 1:30 to both Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae and to Leptospira pomona. (P17.24.w2)
• Serological surveys have revealed the disease is prevalent in some populations from the southeastern United States including cottontails (Sylvilagus (Genus)) and Sylvilagus aquaticus - Swamp rabbit. [1971] (B614.8.w8)
• Up to 40% of Lepus europaeus - Brown hares found in local populations in the Netherlands are reported to have antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar grippotyphosa. [1980] (B614.8.w8)

Host Species List

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant  
• Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
• Ursus thibetanus - Asiatic black bear
• Ursus arctos - Brown bear

Lagomorphs:

• Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
• Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit
• Sylvilagus aquaticus - Swamp rabbit

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• The brown rat (Rattus norvegicus - Brown rat); this species has been recognised as a major source of Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae for about 80 years.(P23.1999S.w5)
• Infection with various serovars has been confirmed on the basis of cultural, histological and/or serological evidence in mice (including woodmice (Apodemus sylvaticus - Wood mouse) and field mice), voles (including field voles (Microtus agrestis - Field vole), bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus - Bank vole) and water voles (Arvicola terrestris - European water vole)), shrews (common (Sorex araneus - Eurasian common shrew), pygmy (Sorex minutus - Eurasian pygmy shrew) and water shrew (Neomys fodiens - Eurasian water shrew)), moles (Talpa europaea - European mole), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus - West European hedgehog), foxes (Vulpes vulpes - Red fox), badgers (Meles meles - Eurasian badger), mink (Mustela vison - American mink), grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis - Eastern grey squirrel), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit). (P23.1999S.w5)
• Wild deer in Britain appear to be infected only rarely. (P23.1999S.w5)

Hedgehogs:

• Leptospira bratislava isolated from a hedgehog caught in Scotland. (J98.1960i.w1)
• Leptospira australis A commonest type found in hedgehogs in Czechoslovakia. (J98.1960i.w1)
• Leptospira bratislava isolated from hedgehogs from Surrey (England), Dyfyd (Wales) and Northern Ireland. (J21.35.w1)
• Australis group Leptospira isolated from one of three wild hedgehogs in England. (J21.22.w3)
• Leptospira bratislava isolated from wild hedgehogs in Denmark. (J1.8.w1)
• Leptospira ballum antibodies detected by microscopic agglutination test in 9/25 wild hedgehogs in New Zealand (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog. (J1.17.w8)
• Leptospira ballum isolated from the kidneys of 5/78 wild health hedgehogs from North Island, New Zealand, where it is a maintenance host for this serovar. (J10.25.w1, J10.29.w1)
• Serotypes isolated from hedgehogs include: 
  • Australis group: bratislava in Erinaceus europaeus in Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy, UK, former USSR, in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, in "hedgehog" in Hungary; australis in Erinaceus europaeus in  Israel, in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy and in "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Autumnalis group: erinacei-auriti in Hemiechinus auritus in former USSR and "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Ballum group: ballum in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel and ballum sub-serotype arboreae in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy.
  • Bataviae group: bataviae in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and in "hedgehog" in Bulgaria.
  • Canicola group: canicola in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel and in Hemiechinus auritus in Israel. 
  • Grippotyphosa: grippotyphosa in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and in Hemiechinus auritus in Israel. 
  • Hebdomadis: mini in Erinaceus europaeus in Israel (subtype szwajizak), saxkoebing in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy (subtype saxkoebing); sejroe subtype sejroe in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and Czechoslovakia; polonica in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland, sejroe in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark; saxkoebing in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark. 
  • Icterohaemorrhagiae group: icterohaemorrhagiae in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland; icterohaemorrhagiae subtype icterohaemorrhagiae in Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in Italy.
  • Javanica group: sorex-jalna in Erinaceus europaeus in the Netherlands, in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Poland and Czechoslovakia and in Hemiechinus auritus in Poland; poi in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in former USSR. 
  • Pomona group: pomona subtype pomona in Erinaceus europaeus in Denmark and in Erinaceus europaeus roumanicus in Czechoslovakia. 

   (J18.38.w1)

• Positive agglutination-lysis reactions against Leptospira bratislava in 34/96 hedgehogs (14 strains isolated), against Leptospira sejroe in eight individuals (one strain isolated), against Leptospira pomona in two (one strain isolated), against Leptospira sorex-jalna in two individuals (one strain isolated) and against Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae in two individuals.(J141.9.w1) 
• Serological reactions to Leptospira were demonstrated in 14/114 hedgehogs in Morocco (also in 23/31 pigs, 2/13 horses, 0/4 camels, 2/46 gerbils, 5/37 striped mice, 2/40 rats, 0/3 field-mice, 5/16 terrapins and 17/62 tortoises) The main serotypes detected were icetrhaemorrhagiae, Canicola, grippotyphosa, australis, pomona and erinaceus. (J142.54.w1)
• 33 strains of leptospires were isolated from 125 hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus tested in the Netherlands, mainly bratislava but with one sorex jalna. Strains were isolated mainly from adults, only two being isolated from animals with body weight less than 500g. Antibodies to these serotypes were detected in 82% of sera and 42% of urine samples from the hedgehogs, while leptospires were seen under dark-field microscopy in 20 kidneys and seven urine samples. (J143.17.w1)
• From hedgehogs in East Germany for the first time Leptospira bratislava (five strains) and Leptospira poi (three strains) were isolated from hedgehogs. 24% of individuals tested had agglutinating antibodies to various types of leptospires. (additionally 63/280 hares had titres against Leptospira grippotyphosa, with "sporadic" serological reactions against Leptospira pomona and Leptospira grippotyphosa among 131 wild boar, 107 deer and two martens. (J144.25.w1)
• Positive sera using the micro-agglutination test in 3/17 wild Erinaceus europaeus (also in 11% of 85 Cervus elaphus, 5/109 Capreolus capreolus, 5/9 Vulpes vulpes, 0/32 Rattus norvegicus and 0/10 Mus musculus) in North Tyrol. (J119.23.w1)
• Erinaceus europaeus in the Azores Archipelago were found to carry Leptospira interrogans (sensu lato) serovars. (J145.13.w1)
• From Erinaceus europaeus europaeus in the UK: 26/56 seropositive serum samples from Compton, Berkshire, with agglutinins found to five serotypes: bratislava, icterohaemorrhagiae, poi, autumnalis and erinacei. In other individuals, infection was diagnosed in 7/14 animals, including in two by culture, two by dark-field and six by serology. (P17.24.w2)

Bears

• A seroprevalence of  40% for Leptospira interrogans was reported in Croatia from 42 free-ranging Ursus arctos - Brown bear. (J1.29.w12) 
• A survey of Ursus americanus - American black bears in Florida, 1980-1987, detected antibodies to Leptospira interrogans in a three-year-old male from Columbia/Baker counties (1:50 titre against serovar icterohaemorrhagiae). (B419.14.w14)

Lagomorphs:

• Infection has been confirmed in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus - European rabbit). (P23.1999S.w5)
• Serological surveys have revealed the disease is prevalent in some populations from the southeastern United States including cottontails (Sylvilagus (Genus)) and Sylvilagus aquaticus - Swamp rabbit. [1971] (B614.8.w8)
• Up to 40 % of Lepus europaeus - Brown hares found in local populations in the Netherlands are reported to have antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar grippotyphosa. [1980] (B614.8.w8)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Ursus arctos - Brown bear

Lagomorphs:

• Lepus europaeus - Brown hares
• Oryctolagus cuniculus
• Sylvilagus aquaticus - Swamp rabbit

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

• In hedgehogs: Europe (including the UK), Middle East, North Africa and New Zealand. (J1.17.w8, J10.25.w1, J10.29.w1, J18.38.w1, J142.54.w1)
• In elephants: Asia. (J12.75.w1)
• In bears: Alabama, USA and Croatia. (P1.1975.w1, J1.29.w12) 

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

• In hedgehogs: Europe (including the UK), Middle East, North Africa and New Zealand. (J1.17.w8, J10.25.w1, J10.29.w1, J18.38.w1, J142.54.w1)
• In bears: Croatia. (J1.29.w12) 

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Examination of body or tissue fluids from an acutely infected animal by dark-field microscopy (only useful if large numbers of leptospires are present).
• Fluorescent antibody staining (e.g. of urinary sediments,  liver or kidney preparations from aborted fetuses, impression smears, tissue sections).
• Immunoperoxidase staining (rapid) or silver impregnation staining.
• Blood culture (during the acute phase) in Fletcher medium, Stuart broth or Ellinghausen medium.
• Animal inoculation (into weanling hamsters or guinea pigs)
• Detection of antibodies by e.g. ELISA or microscopic agglutination test (four-fold or greater increase in titre between acute and convalescent phase serum samples). 

  (B47)

• Serological titres in association with compatible clinical signs. (P1.1975.w1)

• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Environmental Assessment
• Treatment and Care
• Environmental and Population Management
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

Specific Medical Treatment

• Antimicrobial drugs such as penicillins, aminoglycosides, erythromycin, tetracyclines. (B209.28.w28)
• May not completely eliminate infection. (B209.28.w28)

• In a Ursus maritimus - Polar bear cub, treatment involved parental chloramphenicol, 250 mg three times daily for six days, together with supportive treatment as indicated below. (B16.9.w9, P1.1975.w1)
  • Full clinical recovery took a month. (P1.1975.w1)

• Treatment and Care - General

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Supportive treatment in a Ursus maritimus - Polar bear cub (given in addition to antibiotics as indicated above) included weekly iron, folic acid, B12 and B-complex injections. (P1.1975.w1)
  • Full clinical recovery took a month. (P1.1975.w1)

• Treatment and Care - General

Preventative Measures

• Vaccination may be advisable. (B407.w18)
• Annual vaccination is recommended if the bears are exposed to free ranging rodents. (B16.9.w9, P1.1975.w1)

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• Preventative Medicine for Mammals
• Treatment and Care - General

Environmental and Population Control Measures

• General hygiene to minimise transfer of infection from infected urine. (B47)
• Draining standing water, providing water from uncontaminated sources, excluding maintenance hosts from premises housing species in which the disease is of concern, and general rodent control may reduce risk of infection. (B209.28.w28)

HEDGEHOGS

• Isolate new arrivals to a cattle herd and vaccinate, keeping isolated until antibody titres will have developed. (B47)

• Environmental and Population Management - General