Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Escherichia coli septicaemia
• Escherichia coli septicaemia
• E. coli septicaemia
• Coli bacillosis
• Colisepticaemia
• Colisepticemia
• Escherichia coli enteritis

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

• Bacterium Escherichia coli, particularly type O78.
• This is a facultative, anaerobic, Gram-negative bacillus. (B614.8.w8)

In hedgehogs

• In hedgehogs, types O78 and O55 have been identified. (J18.38.w1)

In humans

• There are three main types of pathogenic Escherichia coli that can produce diarrhoeal disease: enteroinvasive, enterotoxigenic, and enteropathogenic. (B614.8.w8)

In lagomorphs

• Pathogenesis: 
  • Escherichia coli is usually not present in the intestine of healthy rabbits but it can proliferate in rabbits that have diarrhoea regardless of the primary aetiologic agent. (B614.8.w8)
  • Alterations in the caecal pH may be the cause in many cases. In the caecum of normal rabbits the pH is under 6.8 and undissociated volatile fatty acids will exert an inhibitory effect on Escherichia coli growth. In rabbits with diarrhoea, particularly in weanlings, the caecal pH often rises over 7. This favours the dissociation of the volatile fatty acids and thus their inhibitory effect is lost and Escherichia coli can proliferate. (B614.8.w8)
  • The key event in the pathogenesis of colibacillosis, without which disease will not occur, is the attachment of the bacteria to the mucosal surface and the effacement of epithelial cells - only enteropathogenic serotypes of Escherichia coli have this ability in rabbits. These serotypes of Escherichia are non-invasive and non toxigenic. (B614.8.w8)
  • Many serotypes have been associated with diarrhoea in rabbits:
    • In suckling rabbits - mainly 0109:H2. (B614.8.w8)
    • In weanling rabbits - the most pathogenic serotypes are 015:H- and 0103:H2. Other serotypes reported include: 020:H7, 0109:H2, 0128:H2, 0132:H2, and 0153. (B614.8.w8)
  • Isolates of enteropathogenic serotypes from suckling rabbits are reported to attach to the whole length of both the small and large intestines whereas the isolates from weanling rabbits are found attached only to the distal small intestine and the large intestine. (B614.8.w8)
  • Suckling isolates are only weakly pathogenic for weanlings and vice versa. (B614.8.w8)
  • Rabbit EPEC (RDEC-1) strain is most common. This is an attaching and effacing strain, with bacteria adhering via a fimbrial adhesin, causing brush border desctruction and enterocyte structural alterations. (J213.8.w2)
  • Escherichia coli isolates from normal healthy rabbits do not have the ability to attach to the mucosa nor efface the epithelial cells. (B614.8.w8) 
  • Note: often occurs as a coinfection with other pathogens such as coccidia (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs and Lagomorphs (with notes on Bears)), rotavirus (Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits) or coronavirus (Rabbit Enteric Coronavirus Infection). (B601.8.w8)

Infective "Taxa"

• Escherichia coli

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Referees

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

In Hedgehogs:
B228.9.w9, B284.6.w6
J18.38.w1
P23.1999S.w8

In Elephants:
B64.27.w4, B214.3.7.w3, B450.13.w13
D301.3.w3

In Bears:
P6.1.w5, P77.1.w19

In Cranes:
B115.5.w6

In Lagomorphs:
B600.10.w10, B601.8.w8, B602.17.w17, B614.8.w8
J213.8.w2

Other References

Code and Title List

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

In Mammals

• Pathogenic strains may cause diarrhoea in juveniles and more rarely adults, and death from acute enteritis without time for the development of diarrhoea in neonates. (B21, B47, B209.29.w29).

• Pathogenic strains may also cause fulminating septicaemias in neonates/juveniles. (B21, B47)

• In hedgehogs: Types O78 and O55 are often implicated in neonatal diarrhoea. (B284.6.w6)

In Birds

• Pathogenic strains may cause outbreaks of mortality e.g. in birds attracted to artificial feeding stations. (J3.143.w3, P23.1999S.w3)
• Pathogenic strains cause respiratory tract infections in poultry.(B47)

Clinical Characteristics

• Chronic respiratory disease, generally in conjunction with other pathogens. (B36.12.w12).
• Acute infection and mortality may occur in unhygienic hatcheries. (B36.12.w12).
• Air sac disease / chronic respiratory disease: in association with virus or mycoplasma infections. Signs include anorexia and can be fatal. (B32.4.w26)
  • Dyspnoea, cyanosis.(B13.33.w4)
  • Not prominent respiratory sounds. (B13.33.w4)
• Colisepticaemia:
  • Acute onset lethargy and anorexia, with ruffled feathers, diarrhoea and polyuria. (B13.33.w4)
  • Pain and reluctance to move in survivors is seen with infection of the joints and particularly of the bone marrow. (B13.33.w4)
• Enteritis: 
  • Diarrhoea, leading to dehydration and cachexia. (B13.33.w4)
• Pseudomembranous/ulcerative enteritis:
  • Death;(B13.33.w4)
  • Non-specific enteritis. (B13.33.w4)
• Coligranulomatosis (Hjaerre's disease):
  • Diarrhoea, polyuria, chronic weight loss.
  • Granulomatous dermatitis may occur.
  • (B13.33.w4)
• Salpingitis:
  • Lack of egg production. (B12)

• Sudden death, or signs of septicaemia: dullness, anorexia and diarrhoea, cyanosis.
• Respiratory signs may be seen, with nasal discharge, dyspnoea, swelling of sinuses; also neurological signs of ataxia, leg weakness, paralysis, clonic spasms, head and neck tremors, rolling, coma.
• Sinusitis, with swelling of infraorbital sinuses, may be seen without generalised infection (B11.34.w2).
• Chronic salpingitis in domestic ducks and geese; may only be diagnosed at slaughter (J6.24.w1).
• Lameness and foot lesion with localised foot infection (See also Bumblefoot).
• Arthritis - swollen joints (J6.10.w3).

(J5.16.w3, B11.40.w8, B14, B16.19.w1).

• Diarrhoea: 
  • Diarrhoea with pale green sticky faces. (B284.6.w6)
  • Faeces streaked with mucus and blood, or containing lumps of bright green jelly-like material or even frank pus (associated with haemolytic strains of Escherichia coli). (B284.6.w6)
  • May lead to dehydration and death. (B284.6.w6)
• Abscesses: May occur at any site on the body. (B284.6.w6)

• Diarrhoea: 
  • In neonates that do not receive colostrum. (B64.27.w4, D301.3.w3)
  • In young elephant in poor husbandry conditions. (B64.27.w4, D301.3.w3)

• Acute diarrhoea with weight loss. (J213.8.w2)
• Intussusception and rectal prolapse may occur. (J213.8.w2)
  • See: Intussusception in Lagomorphs

Different syndromes of colibacillosis in rabbits include:

• In suckling rabbits
  • Severe yellowish diarrhoea with high mortality (sometimes the entire litter can die). (B614.8.w8)
  • Severe watery diarrhoea with death of up to the whole litter. (B601.8.w8)
• Weanling diarrhoea with high mortality 
  • Profuse liquid diarrhoea (B614.8.w8)
  • Dehydration (B614.8.w8)
  • Weight loss (B614.8.w8)
  • High mortality within five to fourteen days (B614.8.w8)
  • Rectal prolapse may occur. (B601.8.w8)
• Weanling diarrhoea with low mortality
  • Mild diarrhoea without dehydration (B614.8.w8)
  • Transient growth retardation (B614.8.w8)
• Pneumonia. (B602.17.w17)
• Otitis media / interna (see: Bacterial Otitis Media - Interna in Lagomorphs)

Incubation

Mortality / Morbidity

• Common infection; usually clinical disease in only a small percentage of the population (J5.16.w3, B10.26.w10). Reported in 21.5% of waterfowl examined post mortem at Kortright Waterfowl Park, Ontario, Canada (J14.29.w1).
• Infection associated with egg peritonitis, metritis or oophoritis may result in significant morbidity and infertility (P4.1992.w1).

• Diarrhoea due to Escherichia coli infection is seen most commonly in hoglets. (B284.6.w6)
• Mortality may occur due to dehydration associated with neonatal diarrhoea. (B284.6.w6)

• Eschericia coli septicaemia has been recorded in neonatal Ursus maritimus - Polar bears. (P6.1.w5)
• Mortality due to gastritis and acute catarrhal enteritis associated with colibacillosis has been reported in captive Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear cubs. (P77.1.w19)

• Variable severity; mortality may be 50 - 100%. (J213.8.w2)
  • In suckling rabbits with a specific enteropathogenic strain, up to 100% mortality. (B601.8.w8)
  • Post-weaning, up to 50% mortality. (B601.8.w8)
• Prognosis is guarded to poor, depending on the rabbit's immunocompetence, bacterial strain and any synergistic infections. (J213.8.w2)
• Small numbers of the most pathogenic Escherichia coli serotypes can induce diarrhoea and lead to over 50% mortality. (B614.8.w8)

Different syndromes of colibacillosis in rabbits include:

• Neonatal diarrhoea with high mortality (serotype 0109:H2)
• Weanling diarrhoea with high mortality (serotypes 0103:H2 or 015:H)
• Weanling diarrhoea with low mortality (serotypes 0123, 0128, 0132 and others)

(B614.8.w8)

Pathology

Gross pathology:

• Colisepticaemia:
  • Body cavities: Fibrinous polyserositis with chronic infection. (B13.33.w4)
    • Pericarditis, perihepatitis: these normally transparent membranes become thickened and are white or yellow. The liver may be swollen, dark and sometimes stained with bile. (B36.12.w12).
  • Ocular lesions (uveitis, or fibrin exudate in the anterior chamber) occur occasionally. (B13.33.w4)
  • Joints: Serofibrinous arthritis in some individuals. (B13.33.w4)
  • GIT: Catarrhal enteritis (this is non-specific). (B13.33.w4)
• Enteritis: 
  • Catarrhal enteritis. (B13.33.w4)
• Pseudomembranous/ulcerative enteritis:
  • Pseudomembranous or ulcerative enteritis. (B13.33.w4)
• Coligranulomatosis (Hjaerre's disease):
  • Intestinal subserosa: greyish foci, varying in size, may have a mineralised centre. (B13.33.w4)
  • Liver: greyish foci, varying in size, may have a mineralised centre. (B13.33.w4)
  • Kidney: greyish foci, varying in size, may have a mineralised centre. (B13.33.w4)
  • Spleen: greyish foci, varying in size, may have a mineralised centre. (B13.33.w4)
• Air sac disease / chronic respiratory disease: 
  • Fibrinous polyserositis
  • Rarely pneumonia (except in geese)
  • (B13.33.w4)
• Salpingitis:
  • Salpingoperitonitis. (B13.33.w4)

Histopathology:

• Colisepticaemia:
  • Liver: Serofibrinous inflammation; plasma cell infiltration (B13.33.w4)
  • Kidneys: Serofibrinous inflammation; plasma cell infiltration. (B13.33.w4)
• Coligranulomatoisis: central necrotic region surrounded by multinucleated giant halls and a few heterophils. (B13.33.w4)

Gross Pathology:

• Septicaemia:
  May be minimal post mortem changes with acute septicaemia.
  Serosal surfaces - fibrinous to caseous "curd-like" exudate, cream to greenish - pericarditis, perihepatitis, airsacculitis, sometimes peritonitis
  Lungs - lungs reddened and fluid-filled (consolidation and oedema)
  Cardiac - ecchymoses, hydropericardium, fibrinous pericarditis
  Hepatic - liver enlarged, sometimes dark, bile stained; sometimes granulomas.
  Spleen - enlarged, dark, sometimes necrotic
• Enteritis - upper small intestine severely inflamed, thickened and congested; clotted blood filling lumen (J36.44.w1).
• Chronic cholecystitis - gross thickening necrosis of walls of gall bladder and bile duct (J36.44.w1).
• Reproductive system - salpingitis, with or without peritonitis, following entry of bacteria from the cloaca or spread of infection from the left abdominal air sac (J6.24.w1, B32.4.w26).
• Sinusitis - clear (usually) mucus filling and distending infraorbital sinuses (B11.34.w2).
• Arthritis - Swelling of affected joint. Joint distended with accumulated exudate. Frequently thickened joint capsule. Inflammation of periarticular soft tissues and tendon sheaths. Exudate may be cloudy, fibrino-purulent and red-brown, or sometimes dryish and yellow-grey. Articular cartilage degenerated and necrotic, sometimes extending to affect subchondral bone.
  (J6.10.w3).
• May also be involved in Omphalitis / Yolk-sacculitis (Omphalitis / Yolk Sacculitis) (J2.23.w1).

Histopathology:

• Septicaemia - Liver and kidneys - serofibrinous inflammation, plasma cell infiltrate.
• Salpingitis - sub-epithelial accumulation of heterophils in the oviduct.

Amyloidosis may also be seen secondary to chronic infection (B39.w1).

(J5.16.w3, J36.41.w1, B10.26.w10, B14, B32.4.w26, B36.12.w12)

Gross Pathology

• Enteritis; the small intestine may be normal but the caecum and colon inflamed. (B600.10.w10)
• Ileum, caecum and colon: thickening of the wall and there may be paintbrush haemorrhages on the serosal surface. Caecal contents are brown and watery. (B614.8.w8)
• Mesenteric lymph nodes: may be swollen. (B614.8.w8)
• With post-weaning colibacillosis, usually mainly typhlitis and colitis. Caecal wall amrked with characteristic "paintbrush" haemorrhages, and contents are blood-stained. (B601.8.w8)
  • Intussusception may be present. (B601.8.w8)
  • Rectal prolapse may be present. (B601.8.w8)

Histopathology

• In affected portions of intestine there is atrophy and fusion of villi. (B614.8.w8)
• Flattened and disorganised epithelial cells. (B614.8.w8)
• Ulcers but the basement membrane is frequently intact. (B614.8.w8)
• There is commonly submucosal oedema and polymorphonuclear leucocytes infiltration of the lamina propria. (B614.8.w8)
• Numerous coliform bacilli attached to the epithelium particularly overlying Peyer's patches. (B614.8.w8)
• Smears from the small intestines of affected neonates may show large numbers of gram-positive rods. (B600.10.w10) 

Human Health Considerations

• Zoonotic. (P23.1999S.w8)
• Avian strains are not considered important causes of infection in humans (B36.12.w12).
• Pathogenic strains (serotype also known as human pathogen) have been associated with mortality in wild birds (Carduelis spinus - European siskin, Carduelis chloris - European greenfinch and Fringilla_coelebs - Chaffinch. Serotypes pathogenic to humans have been isolated from a variety of birds including gulls, pigeons, house sparrows and Passer montanus - Eurasian tree sparrow. (P23.1999S.w3)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

• A variety of mammals and birds. (B21, B47)
• Wild birds (Carduelis spinus European siskin, Carduelis chloris - European greenfinch and Fringilla coelebs - Chaffinch. (P23.1999S.w3)
• Serotypes pathogenic to humans have been isolated from a variety of birds including gulls (Laridae), pigeons (Columbidae), Passer domesticus - House sparrow and Passer montanus - Tree sparrow. (P23.1999S.w3)

In Waterfowl

• Lesser Magellan goose (upland goose) Chloephaga picta - Yolk-sacculitis (Omphalitis / Yolk Sacculitis). (J2.23.w1)
• Wild mute swan Cygnus olor in the UK; respiratory infection. (J36.41.w1)
• Wild mute swans Cygnus olor in Scotland, UK, one with enteritis, the other with chronic cholecystitis and peritonitis. (J36.44.w1)
• Captive wild-trapped canvasbacks Aythya valisineria apparently associated with weight loss and general stress due to confinement. (J1.12.w5)
• Domestic ducks and geese with salpingitis. (J6.24.w1, B32.4.w26)
• Domestic ducklings with septicaemia or yolk sacculitis and septicaemia. (J5.16.w3, B32.4.w26)
• Domestic ducks with arthritis. (J6.10.w3)
• Various waterfowl at the Kortright Waterfowl Park, Ontario, Canada. (J14.29.w1)

In Hedgehogs

• In young hand-reared hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in the UK. (B284.6.w6)
• In 16/410 hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus presented for post mortem examination in Germany. (J138.61.w1)

In Elephants

• Reported in neonates and young calves, (species not specified). (B64.27.w4)
• Haemolytic Escherichia coli was isolated from the small intestine of a zoo elephant frequently fed by the public. (B214.3.7.w3)

In Bears

• Eschericia coli septicaemia has been recorded in neonatal Ursus maritimus - Polar bears. (P6.1.w5)
• Mortality due to gastritis and acute catarrhal enteritis associated with colibacillosis has been reported in captive Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear cubs. (P77.1.w19)

In Lagomorphs

• Epizootics of fatal enteropathy have been reported frequently in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit). (B614.8.w8)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck
• Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose
• Aythya valisineria - Canvasback
• Chloephaga picta - Upland goose
• Cygnus olor - Mute swan

MAMMALS

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• Elephants (Elephantidae - Elephants (Family))
• Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• Wild mute swan Cygnus olor in the UK; respiratory infection. (J36.41.w1)
• Wild mute swans Cygnus olor in Scotland, UK, one with enteritis, the other with chronic cholecystitis and peritonitis. (J36.44.w1)
• Wild birds (Carduelis spinus – siskins, Carduela chloris - greenfinches and Fringilla coelebs - chaffinches. (P23.1999S.w3)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Cygnus olor - Mute swan
• Carduelis chloris - European greenfinch
• Carduelis spinus - European siskin
• Fringilla coelebs - Chaffinch

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• Associated with poor hygiene, dry and dusty conditions, inadequate ventilation, extremes of temperature, restricted access to food and water. (B11.40.w8, B32.4.w26, B36.12.w12, B47)
• In domestic duck flocks, coliform septicaemia is seen most frequently in late autumn and winter, and with unhygienic environments. (J5.16.w3, B32.4.w26)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

In lagomorphs

• In USA: enteropathogenic Escherichia coli serotype 015:H has been reported in rabbits. (B614.8.w8)
• In France: 0130:H2 is the most commonly reported serotype of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in rabbits. (B614.8.w8)
• In Belgium: 015:H-, 0128:H2, and 0132:H2 are the most common serotypes of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in rabbits. (B614.8.w8)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Enteric colibacillosis may be suspected in animals with profuse watery white to yellow faeces.
• Septicaemia (colibacillosis or due to other bacteria) is indicated by anorexia, fever and progressive depression.
• Primary infections at various sites may be indicated by signs of inflammation at those sites.

Culture:

• Except for intestinal disease, routine microbiological culture may be useful. (B336.71.w71)
• For intestinal infection, culture may be less useful. (B336.71.w71)
• Gross lesions of sepsis are not specific. Depending on the strain of E. coli involved, lesions may range from fluid distention of the intestines to severe mucosal necrosis and haemorrhage. (B336.71.w71)
• In some species, PCR may be used to detect virulence genes. (B336.71.w71)

In Birds:

Post mortem findings:

• Polyserositis and formation of granulomas are indicative of colibacillosis. (B13.33.w4)

Culture:

• Culture of the organism from affected tissues is required for specific diagnosis. (B13.33.w4)
• Bacterial isolation from infected tissue, and identification. E. coli may be recovered from all organs in cases of septicaemia, e.g. heart blood, liver, spleen, gall bladder, brain. (J5.16.w3, B10.26.w10, B14, B16.19.w1, B21, B47)
• In cranes: Heavy culture of Escherichia coli in a chick with diarrhoea. (B115.5.w6)
  • N.B. E. coli can be cultured from healthy chicks also. (B115.5.w6)

In Lagomorphs:

Presumptive diagnosis:

• Isolation of Escherichia coli in faeces of rabbits with diarrhoea. (J213.8.w2)
  • Note: non-pathogenic strain  Eschericia coli overgrowth may occur in rabbits with dysbiosis due to other causes. (Escherichia coli)
• Demonstration of bacterial attachment and effacement of the intestinal epithelium. Other lesions are frequently present as well but they are not as specific and are easily confused with lesions of enterotoxaemia (see: Clostridial Enteritis and Enterotoxicosis in Rabbits). (B614.8.w8)

Definitive diagnosis:

• Isolation of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli by serotyping or biotyping. (B614.8.w8)
• Culture of heavy growth of Eschericia coli in association with histological findings indicating a bacterial primary pathogen is required to confirm coliform enteritis. (B601.8.w8)
• Histopathology: identification of Escherichia coli attached to enterocytes. (J213.8.w2)
• Note: colibacillosis often occurs as a coinfection with other pathogens such as coccidia (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs and Lagomorphs (with notes on Bears)), rotavirus (Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits) or coronavirus (Rabbit Enteric Coronavirus Infection). (B601.8.w8)

• Environmental Assessment
• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Physical Examination of Birds - General
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Necropsy of Birds - General
• Imaging in Lagomorph Diagnosis and Treatment
• Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Other septicaemias, Anatipestifer infection (Anatipestifer Infection). (J5.16.w3, B32.4.w26)
• Sinusitis: Mycoplasma spp. (Mycoplasma Infection), Mycobacterium spp. (Avian Tuberculosis), Pseudomonas spp. (Pseudomonas Infection), influenza virus (Avian Influenza), Pasteurella spp. (Avian Cholera). (B11.34.w2)

• Salmonellosis (Salmonellosis (with special reference to Waterfowl and Hedgehogs)) also causes diarrhoea in juvenile hedgehogs. (J15.21.w1)
• Proteus sp. infection (Proteus Infection in Waterfowl and Hedgehogs) also causes diarrhoea with similar signs. (B284.6.w6)

• Clostridium perfringes Infection in Elephants
• Colic in Elephants

• Elephant Gastro-Intestinal Nematode Infection

• Intestinal Fluke Infection in Elephants

• Salmonellosis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Elephants)

• Schistosomiasis in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants)

• Enterotoxaemia (see: Clostridial Enteritis and Enterotoxicosis in Rabbits)
• Other causes of diarrhoea, including Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs and Lagomorphs (with notes on Bears), Clostridial Enteritis and Enterotoxicosis in Rabbits, Tyzzer's Disease in Lagomorphs, and viral enteritis infections (e.g. Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits, Rabbit Enteric Coronavirus Infection)(B600.10.w10) 
  • Note: colibacillosis often occurs as a coinfection with other pathogens such as coccidia (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs and Lagomorphs (with notes on Bears)), rotavirus (Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits) or coronavirus (Rabbit Enteric Coronavirus Infection). (B601.8.w8)

Specific Medical Treatment

• Oral antibiotics for purely intestinal infection. (B13.33.w4)
• Parenteral antibiotics. (B13.33.w4)

• Potentiated sulphonamides (e.g. Tribrissen (Trimethoprim/ Sulphonamide) 24% (Schering-Plough Animal Health), 30 mg/kg once daily intramuscularly or subcutaneously, for five to eight days, or Zaquilan (Schering-Plough Animal Health) 20-40 mg/kg orally once daily), or Amoxycillin / Clavulanic acid (30-50 mg/kg twice daily orally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or Enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg twice daily subcutaneously, intramuscularly or orally). (D107)
• Ampicillin is a broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotic and is generally effective against enterobacteria. (B22.27.w3, B284.6.w6)
• Amoxycillin is a broad spectrum antibiotic (B22.27.w3, B284.6.w6) and Amoxycillin / Clavulanic acid is particularly useful in enteritis. (B284.6.w6)
• Enrofloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic useful in colibacillosis. (B284.6.w6, B266)

• Antibiotics, such as ampicillin or kanamycin. (B10.49.w21, B64.27.w4)
• Data from a recent pharmacokinetic study on Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant indicate that enrofloxacin given orally at 2.5 mg/kg once daily would reach potentially therapeutic concentrations and could be useful in the treatment of colibacillosis in elephants. (J13.66.w1)

• Broad-spectrum antibiotics initially, e.g. (J213.8.w2)
  • Enrofloxacin;
  • Trimethoprom-sulphadoine (Delvoprim Coject) 48 mg/kg subcutanously once daily.
  • Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole suspension) 30 mg/kg orally twice daily.
• Ideally, base antibiotic treatment on culture and sensitivity testing. (J213.8.w2)
• Rabbit isolates of Escherichia coli are reported to be susceptible to various antibiotics including amoxicillin, ampicillin, gentamicin and colistin. (B614.8.w8)
• Ideally use an antibiotic that has minimal activity against gram-positive bacteria so the re-establishment of normal intestinal flora is interfered with as little as possible. (B614.8.w8)
• Neomycin and chloramphenicol have each been used successfully against serotype 015H-. (B614.8.w8)
• Prognosis: in severe cases treatment is not likely to be rewarding, however in weanlings with mild diarrhoea treatment can be worthwhile. (B614.8.w8)

• Treatment and Care
• Subcutaneous Injection of Hedgehogs
• Intramuscular Injection of Hedgehogs
• Medicating Elephants

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Ensure a diet giving good nutrition. (B13.33.w4)
• Avian strains of lactobacilli to lower the intestinal pH. (Mammalian strains of lactobacillus may be given but require large quantities over three to four weeks to be effective) (B13.33.w4)
• Lactulose may be given to lower the intestinal pH. (B13.33.w4)

• Fluid therapy is essential. (D107)
• Buscopan (Boehringer Ingelheim Limited) is recommended (0.1-0.2 mL/kg no more frequently than every eight hours, not for prolonged use) if squeals indicate that the hedgehog is suffering from intestinal cramping. (D107)
• Probiotics, digestive enzymes, vitamins and Kaolin may also be useful in the treatment of gastrointestinal bacterial infections. (D107)

• Supportive care, such as fluid therapy and nursing. (B10.49.w21, B64.27.w4)

• Supportive care. (B614.8.w8)
• Aggressive fluid therapy starting as soon as possible. (J213.8.w2)
  • See: Treatment and Care - Fluid Therapy
• Loperamide hydrochloride has been used successfully in conjunction with fluid therapy in adult New Zealand white rabbits. (J213.8.w2)
• A high fibre diet is a useful therapeutic measure. (B614.8.w8)

• Infraorbital Sinus Flushing in Birds
• Treatment and Care
• Fluid Therapy for Hedgehogs
• Medicating Elephants

Preventative Measures

WATERFOWL

• Probiotics in first two weeks of life. (B11.40.w8)

• Treatment and Care
• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Preventative Medicine for Mammals

Environmental and Population Control Measures

General attention to hygiene and avoidance of overcrowding are important in reducing the risk of infection. (B47, B336.71.w71)

• Ventilation and humidity control as well as attention to environmental contamination may be important in control of this disease in birds. (B336.71.w71)

Hygiene is important to reduce the risk of bird feeders becoming contaminated (P23.1999S.w3)

• Move feeding stations regularly, avoid feeding at the same site continuously. (D48)
• Avoid using suspended feeders with sills on which food particles and droppings may collect. (D48)
• Clean up discarded feed and droppings from under suspended feeders and bird tables regularly e.g. by sweeping, and dispose of hygienically (incineration is ideal). (D48)
• Brush bird tables or other surfaces used for feeding daily. (D48)
• Thoroughly clean bird feeders/tables regularly (as appropriate for speed of build up of droppings) and daily during a disease outbreak. (D48)
• Wash or soak feeders/tables using a 5% sodium hypochlorite solution or a safe disinfectant (e.g. Tamodine-E, Vetark), followed by thorough rinsing. (D48)
• Use fresh, good-quality foods, dispose of uneaten food hygienically. (D48)
• Store foods carefully in rodent-proof containers. (D48)

WATERFOWL 

• Improve general hygiene. (B10.26.w10, B11.40.w8)

• Strict hygiene is essential to control neonatal enteritis, including sterilisation of equipment. (B284.6.w6)

• Facilities should be thoroughly sanitised. (B614.8.w8)

• Minimise stress in neonates. (B11.40.w8)

• Severely affected animals should be culled. (B614.8.w8)

• Isolation of infected individuals is important to control spread of neonatal enteritis. (B284.6.w6)

• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Preventative Medicine for Mammals
• Environmental and Population Management
• Environmental Assessment