Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection in Hedgehogs, Bears and Lagomorphs

Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Atrophic rhinitis (in domestic pigs). (B47)
• "Kennel cough" or canine trachobronchitis in dogs

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

• Bordetella bronchiseptica
• Pathogenicity may vary between strains. Some strains show resistance to several antibiotics (B614.8.w8)
• Overcrowding, poor ventilation and transportation are all factors which may increase the likelihood of this disease developing. (J417.24.w2)

Infective "Taxa"

• Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bordetella (Bacteria Genera))

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

• Ventilation - inadequate

References

Disease Author

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

In hedgehogs:
J15.21.w1, B16.13.w13, B271.29.w29, B228.9.w9, B259.w7, B284.6.w6

In bears:
J2.37.w2

In lagomorphs:
B602.17.w17, B614.8.w8
J16.29.w1, J60.6.w1, J417.24.w2

Referees

Other References

Code and Title List

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

Clinical Characteristics

• Respiratory signs, bronchopneumonia.
• Septicaemia in laboratory rodents.
  (B47)

In dogs:

• Kennel cough: severe harsh, moist cough caused by mucus accumulation.
• May lead to retching and vomiting.
• In dogs with distemper may get fatal bronchopenumonia.
  (B47) 

In pigs: 

• Carrier state.
• Upper respiratory tract signs: 
  • Sneezing, coughing.
  • Later atrophic rhinitis - deformity of the nose (bony structures affected)
    (B47)

• Respiratory signs: profuse and purulent nasal discharge, sneezing, dyspnoea, hyperpnoea, wheezing, epistaxis. (J15.21.w1, B16.13.w13, B271.29.w29, B228.9.w9, B284.6.w6)

• In a five-year-old male Ursus maritimus - Polar bear. (J2.37.w2)
  • Depression, partial anorexia, with developing dysphagia and cough. (J2.37.w2)
  • When the bear was anaesthetised for examination, on extubation the inside of the endotracheal tube was found to be coated with thick mucopurulent exudate. (J2.37.w2)
  • Uneventful recovery following treatment with oral antibiotics (see below); cough ceased after two days of treatment, the bear's appetite was normal by one week of treatment. (J2.37.w2)
• In a female Ursus maritimus - Polar bear. (J2.37.w2)
  • Lethargy and coughing. (J2.37.w2)
  • Uneventful recovery in one week following treatment with oral antibiotics (see below). (J2.37.w2)

Clinical pathology:

• In a five-year-old male Ursus maritimus - Polar bear. (J2.37.w2)
  • A smear of mucopurulent exudate from the trachea revealed (Gram stain) inflammation; there was a moderate neutrophil response, few monocytes and only rare lymphocytes and erythrocytes. Pleomorphic gram-negative coccobacilli were seen, most being within neutrophils. (J2.37.w2)
  • Cultures (aerobic and fungal) yielded Bordatella bronchiseptica in pure culture. (J2.37.w2)

Natural infection

• Sometimes this bacterium causes rhinitis in rabbits (as indicated by pure culture of Bordatella bronchiseptica). (B602.17.w17, J16.29.w1) Clinical signs include: (J417.24.w2)
  • Nasal exudate (serous to mucopurulent);
  • Coughing, sneezing;
  • Ocular discharge;
  • Anorexia.

  (J417.24.w2)

Experimental infection

• Experimental intranasal challenge with this organism has been reported to result in acute serous rhinitis and also bronchopneumonia in some animals, particularly suckling rabbits. (B602.17.w17, B614.8.w8)
• This pathogen has also been reported to induce pneumonia under experimental conditions; however, under natural conditions it is not thought to be a primary cause of pneumonia but may act as a copathogen with Pasteurella multocida (see: Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs). (B614.8.w8)

Incubation

Mortality / Morbidity

• High morbidity in e.g. pigs and in dogs in kennels.
• May be fatal as e.g. a bronchopneumonia in dogs following distemper
  (B47)

• Common as a respiratory infection secondary to Crenosoma striatum lungworm infection in the UK. (B284.6.w6, B259.w7)
  • See: Lungworm Infection in Hedgehogs
• Common when hedgehogs are kept confined together. (B259.w7)
• Mortality may be seen with Bordetella bronchiseptica together with Crenosoma striatum infection. (B24)
• Euthanasia may be warranted in severely dyspnoeic individuals. (B284.6.w6)

• One instance of infection in two Ursus maritimus - Polar bear in the same facility has been reported. Recovery was uneventful following antibiotic treatment. (J2.37.w2)

• Bordetella bronchiseptica is reported to have a high prevalence but a limited pathogenicity in rabbits. (B614.8.w8)

Pathology

• Bronchopneumonia
• In pigs with atrophic rhinitis the bacteria causes lesions to the turbinate bones.
  (B47)

• Tracheitis, catarrhal rhinitis, bronchopneumonia. (B271.29.w29, B228.9.w9, B284.6.w6)

• Experimental intranasal challenge with this organism has been reported to result in bronchopneumonia and pleuritis in suckling and weanling rabbits. (B602.17.w17, B614.8.w8)

Human Health Considerations

• Potential zoonosis. Few reported cases of Bordatella bronchiseptica in humans, causing bronchopneumonia and a recurrent non-productive cough. Infections have only occurred "under atypical conditions". (P23.1999S.w8)
• Infection (including zoonotic infection) might be more common in individuals with HIV infection. (J270.28.w1)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

• Crenosoma striatum causing respiratory disease and death in a captive colony of Erinaceus europaeus and Aethechinus algerus; some also had Bordatella bronchiseptica infection. (J77.87.w1)
• Bordetella bronchiseptica infection causing respiratory disease was seen commonly in autumn in laboratory-maintained hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), spreading rapidly in confined conditions and described as "virulent". (J42.50.w1)
• Bordetella bronchiseptica has been isolated from the respiratory tract of British hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus; it often causes bronchopneumonia in captive individuals. (J18.38.w1)
• Bordetella bronchiseptica associated with Crenosoma sp. lungworm in a hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus with pneumonia.  (J3.128.w2)
• Bordetella bronchiseptica may be isolated from the respiratory tracts of hedgehogs with clinical signs of respiratory disease but also from clinically healthy individuals. (B284.6.w6)
• Hedgehogs with lungworm infection and/or kept together in the UK. (B259.w7)

Bears:

• Two Ursus maritimus - Polar bears at one zoo. (J2.37.w2)

Lagomorphs:

• Bordetella bronchiseptica is commonly isolated from the upper respiratory tract of laboratory rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit). (B614.8.w8)
• Bordetella bronchiseptica is not-uncommonly isolated from rabbits with rhinitis, and has been isolated from a colony of Pasterurella multocida - free rabbits with upper respiratory tract infection. (B602.17.w17)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for  species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Erinaceidae - Hedgehogs, moonrats (Family) species affected:
  • Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
  • Atelerix algirus - Algerian hedgehog
• Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic European rabbit
• Ursus maritimus - Polar bears

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• Crenosoma sp. lungworm with associated Bordetella bronchiseptica in a hedgehog with pneumonia. (J3.128.w2)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for  species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• Reported to be associated with the weather getting colder. (J42.50.w1)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

• Infection has been seen in Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog in Britain but the agent has not been isolated from these hedgehogs in New Zealand. (J18.38.w1)
• In Ursus maritimus - Polar bear in North America. (J2.37.w2)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Detection by culture e.g. from nasal swab. (B47)

• In a five-year-old male Ursus maritimus - Polar bear. (J2.37.w2)
  • Initial diagnosis of tracheitis on the basis of clinical signs and findings of clinical examination, including a thick pucopulrulent exudate in the trachea (found coating the inside of the endotracheal tube at the time of extubation).  (J2.37.w2)
  • A gram stained smear of mucopurulent exubate from the trachea revealed inflammation; there was a moderate neutrophil response, few monocytes and only rare lymphocytes and erythrocytes. Pleomorphic gram-negative coccobacilli were seen, most being within neutrophils. (J2.37.w2)
  • Cultures (aerobic and fungal) yielded Bordatella bronchiseptica in pure culture. (J2.37.w2)
    • Sensitivity testing revealed that the isolate was sensitive to most common antibiotics, including amoxycillin/clavulanic acid and "amikacin, ceftazidime, cephalothrin, chloramphenicol, enrofloxacin, piperacillin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim/sulfa." (J2.37.w2)

• In rabbits with rhinitis, a deep nasal swab should be taken and sent for bacteriological culture and sensitivity testing. Insertion of the swab will generally require sedation or anaesthesia. (B600,13.w13, J417.24.w2)
  • Swab both nares. (B601.7.w7, B602.17.w17, J60.6.w1)
  • Insert at least 1 cm into each nares, further if possible (1 - 4 cm). (B601.7.w7, B602.17.w17)
  • A small swab is required, such as a no. 4 calcium alginate swab. (B601.7.w7, B602.17.w17)
• Radiography of the thorax; this may reveal consolidated lung areas. (J417.24.w2)

• Environmental Assessment
• History & Documentation
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Imaging in Lagomorph Diagnosis and Treatment
• Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Pasteurella multocida may also cause bacterial respiratory infection. (J15.21.w1)
• Bordatella bronchiseptica infection is often secondary to Lungworm Infection in Hedgehogs, which also causes respiratory signs. (J15.21.w1, B259.w7)

• Other causes of lethargy and cough. (J2.37.w2)
• In a five-year-old male Ursus maritimus - Polar bear, fungal infection was ruled out based on the absence of fungal elements in the mucopurulent exudate from the trachea, lack of growth on fungal culture, and negative serology on a fungal serology panel (coccidiomycosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, aspergillosis). (J2.37.w2)

• Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs
• Note: both bacteria may be present and infection with Bordatella bronchiseptica may increase susceptibility to Pasteurella multocida. (B602.17.w17, J60.6.w1, J417.24.w2)

Specific Medical Treatment

• Sensitive to: carbenicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, sulfamethazine, erythromycin, aminoglycosides, polymixin B.(B47)
• Natural resistance to penicillin. (B47)
• In dogs: aerosols (kanamycin, gentamycin or polymixin B) are more effective than parenteral antibiotics. (B47)
• In pigs: sulphamethazine 100g / ton feed. (N.B. check for resistance).(B47)

• Enrofloxacin 10mg/kg twice daily, amoxycillin/clavulanate 30-50 mg/kg twice daily or clindamycin 5-10 mg/kg twice daily. J15.21.w1)
• Oxytetracycline 50 mg/kg orally twice daily, amoxycillin 50-150 mg of long-acting preparation every other day, enrofloxacin 10-20 mg/kg intramuscular or subcutaneous twice daily, or cephalexin 30 mg/kg once or twice daily, intramuscular, subcutaneous or oral. (B284.6.w6)
• Parenteral tetracyclines. (B16.13.w13)
• Sulphonamides or oxytetracycline 50 mg/kg daily. (B228.11.w11)
• Oxytetracycline 50 mg/kg bodyweight daily. (B259.w7)

Additional symptomatic treatment: mucolytics such as Bromhexine hydrochloride (Bisolvon (Boehringer Ingelheim)), bronchodilators, NSAIDs [see: Carprofen, Flunixin meglumine, Ketoprofen]. (J15.21.w1, B284.6.w6, B228.11.w11)

• A 14-day course of oral antibiotics (Amoxycillin/Clavulanic acid 22 mg/kg twice daily was effective in the treatment of two Ursus maritimus - Polar bear with Bordatella bronchiseptica tracheitis. Sensitivity testing confirmed that the isolated organism was sensitive to this antibiotic. (J2.37.w2)

• Antibiotic therapy according to culture and sensitivity. (B602.17.w17, J417.24.w2)
  • Enrofloxacin, 5 - 10 mg/kg every 12 hours for 5 - 7 days. (J417.24.w2)
    • 5- 20 mg/kg once or twice daily, orally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly. (B609.AppIII.w5)
  • Oxytetracycline 0.1 mg/mL in drinking water for seven days. (J417.24.w2)
    • Use with care - can cause antibiotic-associated enteritis. (V.w127)
• Note: antibiotic treatment does not eliminate the carrier state. (J417.24.w2)

• TreatmeTreatment and Carent and Care - General

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Oxygen therapy and nebulization may be useful for hedgehogs with severe respiratory congestion, e.g. using a mucolytic such as acetylcystein plus an antibiotic such as gentamicin. N.B. ensure personnel do not come into contact with suspended droplets. J15.21.w1, B284.6.w6)

• Give Lactobacillus during and for about five days after antibiotic treatment to reduce disturbance to gastrointestinal flora. (J417.24.w2)

• Treatment and Care - General

Preventative Measures

• Live attenuated intranasal vaccine (dogs, pigs). (B47)

• While parenteral and intranasal vaccines are available for dogs, there is unknown safety of the vaccines in non-domestic species, including bears. In the clinical cases reported, virulence appeared low and the infection was easily treated with antibiotic therapy. (J2.37.w2)

• Live attenuated vaccines may be used in large rabbitries. (J417.24.w2)

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• Treatment and Care - General
• Preventative Medicine for Mammals

Environmental and Population Control Measures

HEDGEHOGS

• Ensure a good environment/husbandry, including good general hygiene, minimising stress and sudden changes in ambient temperature and feeding, to minimise susceptibility to this, and other, pathogens. (B602.17.w17, J60.6.w1, J417.24.w2)

• Culling of affected individuals may be required as part of a control programme during an outbreak. (J417.24.w2)

• Maintaining hedgehogs individually, avoiding close contact, has been used as a measure to avoid spread of infection in laboratory-maintained hedgehogs. (B271)

• Bordetella bronchiseptica is reported to have a high prevalence but a limited pathogenicity in rabbits so control of this pathogen is usually not attempted. However, if elimination of Bordetella  from a rabbitry is required then embryo transfer or caesarian derivation may be used. These animals must subsequently be housed under barrier conditions. (B614.8.w8)
• A new rabbit entering a multi-rabbit home should be quarantined and mixed with the other rabbits only after it is known to be healthy. (B602.17.w17)
• During an outbreak, affected individuals should be isolated. (J417.24.w2)

• Environmental and Population Management - General
• Accommodation of Casualty Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog