The first stage in the physical examination of a
mammal is
observation of the individual(s), preferably without it knowing it is being observed. Observation
is particularly valuable for wild mammals where conscious physical
examination is not possible and chemical restraint is essential in order
to carry out a full physical examination.
- Note: Non-predatory mammals may attempt to hide their illness; this is
a survival tactic, as predators may be more likely to target an obviously unfit
individual.
- A mammal which appears bright and alert
when being watched may appear increasingly weak when it thinks it
is unobserved.
- Careful attention should be paid to
reports of problems from experienced management staff and others
familiar with the individual; this may allow early recognition of
problems which would not other wise be apparent at this stage.
- If the animal's daily caretaker has noted that the animal is
"not right" they are probably correct, even if no problem
is apparent when the animal is observed by veterinary personnel. (P108.12.w2)
- Describe the animal's general demeanour
(bright,
alert responsive; quiet, alert, responsive; collapsed; comatose).
- Note any changes in behaviour.
- Cessation of normal behaviours should be noted as well as the
occurrence of abnormal behaviours.
- Observe any abnormal behaviour patterns e.g. circling, head pressing,
repetitive stereotyped movements.
- Note the interaction between the individual and others in the group,
bearing in mind what is normal for that species and management system.
- Changes in social interactions may indicate illness.
- General signs of illness include poor
coat quality, a
hunched appearance, partially closed eyes, the head held downwards,
prolonged recumbency, straining, shivering, etc. Some vocalisations may
indicate pain.
- Repeated attention of an animal directed towards one area of its body
(for example repeated licking of the area) may indicate an injury or
other localised problem.
- Evidence of effort to control an
abnormally high or low body temperature should be noted.
- Overheating (Sunstroke - Heatstroke,
pyrexia)
may be associated with signs such as open-mouth breathing, flared
nostrils, sweating, resting as far away from artificial heat sources
as possible, resting in shade.
- Chilling/hypothermia (Chilling/Hypothermia)
may be associated
with signs such as huddling in groups, shivering, piloerection
("hairs standing on end"), resting close to artificial
heat sources.
- Foot or leg problems may cause a mammal
to shift its weight from one leg to the other repeatedly, weight-bear on only one side constantly,
or rest on the
ground rather than stand.
- Describe any abnormalities of posture
of the head, body and tail.
- Examine the animal's gait at a number of
paces and activities where possible (e.g. walking, trotting, cantering,
climbing).
- Lameness should be characterised as
shifting or continual, single or multiple limb (noting the limbs
affected), and graded according to a system from barely visible to
non-weight bearing lame.
- Note the respiratory rate, effort and
character.
- Increased respiratory effort may be seen as
excessive chest movement, mouth-breathing with the neck
outstretched, gasping, double expiratory effort in extreme cases,
expiratory grunt.
- A variety of nervous signs may be seen, including
ataxia,
paresis,
paralysis,
torticollis,
circling, convulsions, etc.
- Assess the reactivity of the mammal to
stimuli (e.g. sound, visual) towards the end of the examination when the
inevitable disturbance will not be too disruptive.
- Observation of behaviour and ability to navigate obstacles in a novel environment is useful for assessment of vision.
- For group problems, observation may give an indication of
the proportion of animals which are sick, and whether the affected
individuals are of a particular
type (e.g. species, food type, sex, age class).
(B280.1.w1, B429.32.w32,
P108.12.w2, V.w5, V.w26) |
West European hedgehog
Erinaceus
europaeus Considerations
|
- Observation of the hedgehog is extremely useful where possible but is
often made difficult because of their ability to roll into a tightly
curled ball and remain in that position for prolonged periods of time.
- When hedgehogs first arrive as a casualty, the history, status of the
animal, etc. may mean that the decision is taken not to spend time on
observation at that stage.
- Hedgehogs will only uncurl in quiet undisturbed surroundings; dimmed
light and a non-slip surface (towel) may help the animal feel
increasingly confident and encourage it to unroll.
- Considerable patience may be required.
- Individual hedgehogs vary in their willingness or reluctance to
uncurl.
- Any attempts at physical handling after the hedgehog has become active
will usually result in it rapidly rolling into a ball once again.(J15.21.w1)
- Where facilities exist, monitoring via remote CCTV (closed-circuit
television) facilities, with or without video recording, is invaluable for observation.
- Peep holes within the pen doors of small enclosures used to house
hedgehogs may be useful for observation.
- Normal hedgehogs will uncurl gradually with the head and forelimbs
first becoming visible. After a pause evaluating their surroundings,
they may then begin to move around.
- Thin and emaciated hedgehogs may have visibly hollowed, concave flanks
which are most easily noted during locomotion.(V.w26)
- Assessment of gait should be used to detect lameness affecting single
or multiple limbs.
- Inability to walk normally is normal in hoglets less than about
two and a half weeks old. (B337.3.w3)
- Sick hedgehogs often develop an ataxic
staggering gait with a continual fine tremor during movement.
- This may be related to general weakness and debility, dehydration,
low blood sugar levels, etc.(V.w26)
- Wobbling and staggering or swaying may occur in hypothermic hoglets. (B337.3.w3)
- Hedgehogs with pelvic fractures may walk splay-legged. (B337.3.w3)
- Fracture or infection of a limb will cause lameness. (B337.3.w3)
- Dragging of both hind limbs may indicate spinal trauma or possible
Hedgehog Pop-off Syndrome.
- Abnormal gait and/or circling may also be seen associated with
head injuries and poisoning. (B337.3.w3)
- Assessment of the respiratory depth and character is particularly
important in the hedgehog.
- Respiratory rates for the hedgehog are highly variable.(B228.6.w6)
- Average respiratory rates in resting hedgehogs during the active
season are reported to be 25 breaths per minute, although values
increase to approximately 50 breaths per minute at exercise.(B228.6.w6)
- For further information on normal breathing and
respiration see: West European hedgehog
Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports)
- Respiration
- Huffing and hissing is normal - a defensive noise. (B337.3.w3) (See:
West European hedgehog
Erinaceus europaeus - Social Behaviour - Territoriality - Predation - Learning (Literature Reports)
- Defensive behaviour)
- Noisy respiration may indicate:
- Upper respiratory tract injury; See: Fractures in Hedgehogs,
Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds,
Crushing
- Upper respiratory tract infection, See:
Hedgehog Dental Disease,
- lower respiratory tract infection (e.g. lungworm, bacterial
pneumonia) See: Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs,
Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection in Hedgehogs,
Pasteurella
Infection in Hedgehogs
- Hedgehog casualties with severe Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs,
with or without secondary bacterial pneumonia, may show obvious breathing
difficulties with laboured deep breathing, heaving flanks, open mouth,
audible wheezing noise, green mucopurulent nasal discharge, chesty
cough, possibly an outstretched neck , even gasping (J15.21.w1,
B151,
B291.12.w12,
V.w26)
- Smoke or fluid inhalation. See: Burns and Smoke Inhalation,
Drowning
- Chest injury (bites or crushing) See: Fractures in Hedgehogs,
Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds,
Crushing
(B337.3.w3)
- Dyspnoea and open-mouth breathing indicate severe damage to the
respiratory system and the prognosis is generally poor. (B284.6.w6)
- Assess the demeanour and reactivity of the hedgehog.
- Normal healthy hedgehogs will respond very quickly to sound or
movement by stopping movement, flinching the head, or curling into a
ball, dependent on the circumstance and individual.
- Very sick and debilitated hedgehogs may be too weak to curl into a
tight ball and instead typically lay on their belly or slightly on
their side in a limp state with their limbs only loosely held to the
body. (V.w26).
- The normal response of the spines to even a slight touch can be
greatly reduced in a very sick hedgehog. (B291.12.w12)
- Neurological signs which may be seen include ataxia,
paralysis, circling, etc.
- Hyperactivity is often stress related. (B337.3.w3)
- Hyperactivity may be seen associated with parasitic infections
particularly fluke (Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection)
and coccidia (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs).
(B337.3.w3)
- Hyperactivity may be seen in female hedgehogs just before giving
birth. (B337.3.w3)
- Hyperactivity may be seen in male hedgehogs in care in early
spring when they want to wander looking for females. (B337.3.w3)
- Hyperactivity may be seen in an individual which is on a heated
pad and is too warm. (B337.3.w3)
- Hyperactivity, racing around the cage in circles, may be seen in a
blind hedgehog; providing a boxed sleep area may reduce this
activity. (B337.3.w3)
- Scratching may be seen associated with ectoparasites such as
maggots (Myiasis)
and mite infections (e.g. Caparinia Mange in Hedgehogs,
Sarcoptic mange)
- Failure to eat may be seen with bacterial infections,
dehydration, hypothermia, weakness, intestinal parasites, injuries to
the jaw or the roof of the mouth (see: Fractures in Hedgehogs,
Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds), dental problems (Hedgehog Dental Disease),
the presence of a
foreign body in the mouth (Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs), or a blocked nose making it difficult for the
hedgehog to breath and eat at the same time. (B337.3.w3)
- Unpleasant smells may be noted in individuals with infected
wounds (Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds),
dental problems (Hedgehog Dental Disease),
diarrhoea, skin problems (mite infection e.g. Caparinia Mange in Hedgehogs
and ringworm (Ringworm in Hedgehogs)),
or contamination with a foreign substance including oily smells
associated with victims of road traffic accidents and musty smell if a
fox has urinated on the hedgehog while attacking it. A smell of burning
may be noticed in individuals which have been burned (Burns and Smoke Inhalation)
(B337.3.w3)
- Assessment of interaction with conspecifics:
(B22.27.w3,
B228.6.w6, B254.2.w2,
J15.21.w1,
V.w26)
|
| Elephant Considerations
|
- It has been recommended to first observe the elephant from a distance
of two to three metres (6.5-10.0 feet) and from multiple directions.
(B455.w1)
- Assess of the body condition: (B455.w1)
- The elephant should not be too thin or too heavy. (B455.w1)
- Temporal depression, protrusion of ribs or scapular spines, and a sunken flank
may indicate poor condition. (B455.w1)
- A body scoring system for Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant has been developed.
(B455.w1)
- Assess appetite: note whether the elephant appears to be
eating; decreased appetite or complete anorexia is a general sign of
ill health in elephants. (B10.49.w21)
- Assess activity and demeanour:
- A normal healthy elephant is alert, with constant movements of
the trunk, ears, tail and legs. Ill elephants show decreased
alertness and decreased or absent movements. (B10.49.w21)
- Signs such as listless, decreased activity, exercise intolerance
and recumbency have been associated with:
- Lameness and reluctance to move has been associated with:
- Assess the condition of the skin and presence of any lesions. "The normal healthy skin is soft and wrinkled, uniformly warm to touch, free from scurf, almost black in color and has no appearance of glaze along the side of the spine or the
hip. The skin over the nails should be moist from sweat. This can be tested by applying dust which should stick".
(B455.w1)
- Observe the eyes for abnormal ocular discharges, corneal scars, or cataracts.
(B455.w1)
- The tusks should be observed closely for asymmetry of growth or discoloration:
-
A bad smell around the mouth may indicate a dental disorder such as:
(B455.w1)
-
Frequent groaning indicates pain.
(B10.49.w21)
-
Abdominal pain may be indicated by abnormal
behaviours including "restlessness, lying down and getting
up, placing the trunk in the mouth, biting the tip of the trunk, or
assuming abnormal postures such as crossing the rear legs."
(B10.49.w21)
-
Dependent oedema
may be noticed. (B10.49.w21)
|
